1"""
   2## Expressions
   3
   4Every AST node in SQLGlot is represented by a subclass of `Expression`.
   5
   6This module contains the implementation of all supported `Expression` types. Additionally,
   7it exposes a number of helper functions, which are mainly used to programmatically build
   8SQL expressions, such as `sqlglot.expressions.select`.
   9
  10----
  11"""
  12
  13from __future__ import annotations
  14
  15import datetime
  16import math
  17import numbers
  18import re
  19import textwrap
  20import typing as t
  21from collections import deque
  22from copy import deepcopy
  23from decimal import Decimal
  24from enum import auto
  25from functools import reduce
  26
  27from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, ParseError
  28from sqlglot.helper import (
  29    AutoName,
  30    camel_to_snake_case,
  31    ensure_collection,
  32    ensure_list,
  33    seq_get,
  34    subclasses,
  35)
  36from sqlglot.tokens import Token, TokenError
  37
  38if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  39    from sqlglot._typing import E, Lit
  40    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  41
  42    Q = t.TypeVar("Q", bound="Query")
  43    S = t.TypeVar("S", bound="SetOperation")
  44
  45
  46class _Expression(type):
  47    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  48        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  49
  50        # When an Expression class is created, its key is automatically set to be
  51        # the lowercase version of the class' name.
  52        klass.key = clsname.lower()
  53
  54        # This is so that docstrings are not inherited in pdoc
  55        klass.__doc__ = klass.__doc__ or ""
  56
  57        return klass
  58
  59
  60SQLGLOT_META = "sqlglot.meta"
  61TABLE_PARTS = ("this", "db", "catalog")
  62COLUMN_PARTS = ("this", "table", "db", "catalog")
  63
  64
  65class Expression(metaclass=_Expression):
  66    """
  67    The base class for all expressions in a syntax tree. Each Expression encapsulates any necessary
  68    context, such as its child expressions, their names (arg keys), and whether a given child expression
  69    is optional or not.
  70
  71    Attributes:
  72        key: a unique key for each class in the Expression hierarchy. This is useful for hashing
  73            and representing expressions as strings.
  74        arg_types: determines the arguments (child nodes) supported by an expression. It maps
  75            arg keys to booleans that indicate whether the corresponding args are optional.
  76        parent: a reference to the parent expression (or None, in case of root expressions).
  77        arg_key: the arg key an expression is associated with, i.e. the name its parent expression
  78            uses to refer to it.
  79        index: the index of an expression if it is inside of a list argument in its parent.
  80        comments: a list of comments that are associated with a given expression. This is used in
  81            order to preserve comments when transpiling SQL code.
  82        type: the `sqlglot.expressions.DataType` type of an expression. This is inferred by the
  83            optimizer, in order to enable some transformations that require type information.
  84        meta: a dictionary that can be used to store useful metadata for a given expression.
  85
  86    Example:
  87        >>> class Foo(Expression):
  88        ...     arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
  89
  90        The above definition informs us that Foo is an Expression that requires an argument called
  91        "this" and may also optionally receive an argument called "expression".
  92
  93    Args:
  94        args: a mapping used for retrieving the arguments of an expression, given their arg keys.
  95    """
  96
  97    key = "expression"
  98    arg_types = {"this": True}
  99    __slots__ = ("args", "parent", "arg_key", "index", "comments", "_type", "_meta", "_hash")
 100
 101    def __init__(self, **args: t.Any):
 102        self.args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = args
 103        self.parent: t.Optional[Expression] = None
 104        self.arg_key: t.Optional[str] = None
 105        self.index: t.Optional[int] = None
 106        self.comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None
 107        self._type: t.Optional[DataType] = None
 108        self._meta: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, t.Any]] = None
 109        self._hash: t.Optional[int] = None
 110
 111        for arg_key, value in self.args.items():
 112            self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 113
 114    def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
 115        return type(self) is type(other) and hash(self) == hash(other)
 116
 117    @property
 118    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
 119        return frozenset(
 120            (k, tuple(_norm_arg(a) for a in v) if type(v) is list else _norm_arg(v))
 121            for k, v in self.args.items()
 122            if not (v is None or v is False or (type(v) is list and not v))
 123        )
 124
 125    def __hash__(self) -> int:
 126        if self._hash is not None:
 127            return self._hash
 128
 129        return hash((self.__class__, self.hashable_args))
 130
 131    @property
 132    def this(self) -> t.Any:
 133        """
 134        Retrieves the argument with key "this".
 135        """
 136        return self.args.get("this")
 137
 138    @property
 139    def expression(self) -> t.Any:
 140        """
 141        Retrieves the argument with key "expression".
 142        """
 143        return self.args.get("expression")
 144
 145    @property
 146    def expressions(self) -> t.List[t.Any]:
 147        """
 148        Retrieves the argument with key "expressions".
 149        """
 150        return self.args.get("expressions") or []
 151
 152    def text(self, key) -> str:
 153        """
 154        Returns a textual representation of the argument corresponding to "key". This can only be used
 155        for args that are strings or leaf Expression instances, such as identifiers and literals.
 156        """
 157        field = self.args.get(key)
 158        if isinstance(field, str):
 159            return field
 160        if isinstance(field, (Identifier, Literal, Var)):
 161            return field.this
 162        if isinstance(field, (Star, Null)):
 163            return field.name
 164        return ""
 165
 166    @property
 167    def is_string(self) -> bool:
 168        """
 169        Checks whether a Literal expression is a string.
 170        """
 171        return isinstance(self, Literal) and self.args["is_string"]
 172
 173    @property
 174    def is_number(self) -> bool:
 175        """
 176        Checks whether a Literal expression is a number.
 177        """
 178        return (isinstance(self, Literal) and not self.args["is_string"]) or (
 179            isinstance(self, Neg) and self.this.is_number
 180        )
 181
 182    def to_py(self) -> t.Any:
 183        """
 184        Returns a Python object equivalent of the SQL node.
 185        """
 186        raise ValueError(f"{self} cannot be converted to a Python object.")
 187
 188    @property
 189    def is_int(self) -> bool:
 190        """
 191        Checks whether an expression is an integer.
 192        """
 193        return self.is_number and isinstance(self.to_py(), int)
 194
 195    @property
 196    def is_star(self) -> bool:
 197        """Checks whether an expression is a star."""
 198        return isinstance(self, Star) or (isinstance(self, Column) and isinstance(self.this, Star))
 199
 200    @property
 201    def alias(self) -> str:
 202        """
 203        Returns the alias of the expression, or an empty string if it's not aliased.
 204        """
 205        if isinstance(self.args.get("alias"), TableAlias):
 206            return self.args["alias"].name
 207        return self.text("alias")
 208
 209    @property
 210    def alias_column_names(self) -> t.List[str]:
 211        table_alias = self.args.get("alias")
 212        if not table_alias:
 213            return []
 214        return [c.name for c in table_alias.args.get("columns") or []]
 215
 216    @property
 217    def name(self) -> str:
 218        return self.text("this")
 219
 220    @property
 221    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
 222        return self.alias or self.name
 223
 224    @property
 225    def output_name(self) -> str:
 226        """
 227        Name of the output column if this expression is a selection.
 228
 229        If the Expression has no output name, an empty string is returned.
 230
 231        Example:
 232            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
 233            >>> parse_one("SELECT a").expressions[0].output_name
 234            'a'
 235            >>> parse_one("SELECT b AS c").expressions[0].output_name
 236            'c'
 237            >>> parse_one("SELECT 1 + 2").expressions[0].output_name
 238            ''
 239        """
 240        return ""
 241
 242    @property
 243    def type(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
 244        return self._type
 245
 246    @type.setter
 247    def type(self, dtype: t.Optional[DataType | DataType.Type | str]) -> None:
 248        if dtype and not isinstance(dtype, DataType):
 249            dtype = DataType.build(dtype)
 250        self._type = dtype  # type: ignore
 251
 252    def is_type(self, *dtypes) -> bool:
 253        return self.type is not None and self.type.is_type(*dtypes)
 254
 255    def is_leaf(self) -> bool:
 256        return not any(isinstance(v, (Expression, list)) for v in self.args.values())
 257
 258    @property
 259    def meta(self) -> t.Dict[str, t.Any]:
 260        if self._meta is None:
 261            self._meta = {}
 262        return self._meta
 263
 264    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
 265        root = self.__class__()
 266        stack = [(self, root)]
 267
 268        while stack:
 269            node, copy = stack.pop()
 270
 271            if node.comments is not None:
 272                copy.comments = deepcopy(node.comments)
 273            if node._type is not None:
 274                copy._type = deepcopy(node._type)
 275            if node._meta is not None:
 276                copy._meta = deepcopy(node._meta)
 277            if node._hash is not None:
 278                copy._hash = node._hash
 279
 280            for k, vs in node.args.items():
 281                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 282                    stack.append((vs, vs.__class__()))
 283                    copy.set(k, stack[-1][-1])
 284                elif type(vs) is list:
 285                    copy.args[k] = []
 286
 287                    for v in vs:
 288                        if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 289                            stack.append((v, v.__class__()))
 290                            copy.append(k, stack[-1][-1])
 291                        else:
 292                            copy.append(k, v)
 293                else:
 294                    copy.args[k] = vs
 295
 296        return root
 297
 298    def copy(self):
 299        """
 300        Returns a deep copy of the expression.
 301        """
 302        return deepcopy(self)
 303
 304    def add_comments(self, comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None) -> None:
 305        if self.comments is None:
 306            self.comments = []
 307
 308        if comments:
 309            for comment in comments:
 310                _, *meta = comment.split(SQLGLOT_META)
 311                if meta:
 312                    for kv in "".join(meta).split(","):
 313                        k, *v = kv.split("=")
 314                        value = v[0].strip() if v else True
 315                        self.meta[k.strip()] = value
 316                self.comments.append(comment)
 317
 318    def pop_comments(self) -> t.List[str]:
 319        comments = self.comments or []
 320        self.comments = None
 321        return comments
 322
 323    def append(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any) -> None:
 324        """
 325        Appends value to arg_key if it's a list or sets it as a new list.
 326
 327        Args:
 328            arg_key (str): name of the list expression arg
 329            value (Any): value to append to the list
 330        """
 331        if type(self.args.get(arg_key)) is not list:
 332            self.args[arg_key] = []
 333        self._set_parent(arg_key, value)
 334        values = self.args[arg_key]
 335        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 336            value.index = len(values)
 337        values.append(value)
 338
 339    def set(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any, index: t.Optional[int] = None) -> None:
 340        """
 341        Sets arg_key to value.
 342
 343        Args:
 344            arg_key: name of the expression arg.
 345            value: value to set the arg to.
 346            index: if the arg is a list, this specifies what position to add the value in it.
 347        """
 348        if index is not None:
 349            expressions = self.args.get(arg_key) or []
 350
 351            if seq_get(expressions, index) is None:
 352                return
 353            if value is None:
 354                expressions.pop(index)
 355                for v in expressions[index:]:
 356                    v.index = v.index - 1
 357                return
 358
 359            if isinstance(value, list):
 360                expressions.pop(index)
 361                expressions[index:index] = value
 362            else:
 363                expressions[index] = value
 364
 365            value = expressions
 366        elif value is None:
 367            self.args.pop(arg_key, None)
 368            return
 369
 370        self.args[arg_key] = value
 371        self._set_parent(arg_key, value, index)
 372
 373    def _set_parent(self, arg_key: str, value: t.Any, index: t.Optional[int] = None) -> None:
 374        if hasattr(value, "parent"):
 375            value.parent = self
 376            value.arg_key = arg_key
 377            value.index = index
 378        elif type(value) is list:
 379            for index, v in enumerate(value):
 380                if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 381                    v.parent = self
 382                    v.arg_key = arg_key
 383                    v.index = index
 384
 385    @property
 386    def depth(self) -> int:
 387        """
 388        Returns the depth of this tree.
 389        """
 390        if self.parent:
 391            return self.parent.depth + 1
 392        return 0
 393
 394    def iter_expressions(self, reverse: bool = False) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 395        """Yields the key and expression for all arguments, exploding list args."""
 396        # remove tuple when python 3.7 is deprecated
 397        for vs in reversed(tuple(self.args.values())) if reverse else self.args.values():
 398            if type(vs) is list:
 399                for v in reversed(vs) if reverse else vs:
 400                    if hasattr(v, "parent"):
 401                        yield v
 402            else:
 403                if hasattr(vs, "parent"):
 404                    yield vs
 405
 406    def find(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Optional[E]:
 407        """
 408        Returns the first node in this tree which matches at least one of
 409        the specified types.
 410
 411        Args:
 412            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 413            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 414
 415        Returns:
 416            The node which matches the criteria or None if no such node was found.
 417        """
 418        return next(self.find_all(*expression_types, bfs=bfs), None)
 419
 420    def find_all(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E], bfs: bool = True) -> t.Iterator[E]:
 421        """
 422        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree and only
 423        yields those that match at least one of the specified expression types.
 424
 425        Args:
 426            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 427            bfs: whether to search the AST using the BFS algorithm (DFS is used if false).
 428
 429        Returns:
 430            The generator object.
 431        """
 432        for expression in self.walk(bfs=bfs):
 433            if isinstance(expression, expression_types):
 434                yield expression
 435
 436    def find_ancestor(self, *expression_types: t.Type[E]) -> t.Optional[E]:
 437        """
 438        Returns a nearest parent matching expression_types.
 439
 440        Args:
 441            expression_types: the expression type(s) to match.
 442
 443        Returns:
 444            The parent node.
 445        """
 446        ancestor = self.parent
 447        while ancestor and not isinstance(ancestor, expression_types):
 448            ancestor = ancestor.parent
 449        return ancestor  # type: ignore
 450
 451    @property
 452    def parent_select(self) -> t.Optional[Select]:
 453        """
 454        Returns the parent select statement.
 455        """
 456        return self.find_ancestor(Select)
 457
 458    @property
 459    def same_parent(self) -> bool:
 460        """Returns if the parent is the same class as itself."""
 461        return type(self.parent) is self.__class__
 462
 463    def root(self) -> Expression:
 464        """
 465        Returns the root expression of this tree.
 466        """
 467        expression = self
 468        while expression.parent:
 469            expression = expression.parent
 470        return expression
 471
 472    def walk(
 473        self, bfs: bool = True, prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None
 474    ) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 475        """
 476        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree.
 477
 478        Args:
 479            bfs: if set to True the BFS traversal order will be applied,
 480                otherwise the DFS traversal will be used instead.
 481            prune: callable that returns True if the generator should stop traversing
 482                this branch of the tree.
 483
 484        Returns:
 485            the generator object.
 486        """
 487        if bfs:
 488            yield from self.bfs(prune=prune)
 489        else:
 490            yield from self.dfs(prune=prune)
 491
 492    def dfs(
 493        self, prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None
 494    ) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 495        """
 496        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 497        the DFS (Depth-first) order.
 498
 499        Returns:
 500            The generator object.
 501        """
 502        stack = [self]
 503
 504        while stack:
 505            node = stack.pop()
 506
 507            yield node
 508
 509            if prune and prune(node):
 510                continue
 511
 512            for v in node.iter_expressions(reverse=True):
 513                stack.append(v)
 514
 515    def bfs(
 516        self, prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None
 517    ) -> t.Iterator[Expression]:
 518        """
 519        Returns a generator object which visits all nodes in this tree in
 520        the BFS (Breadth-first) order.
 521
 522        Returns:
 523            The generator object.
 524        """
 525        queue = deque([self])
 526
 527        while queue:
 528            node = queue.popleft()
 529
 530            yield node
 531
 532            if prune and prune(node):
 533                continue
 534
 535            for v in node.iter_expressions():
 536                queue.append(v)
 537
 538    def unnest(self):
 539        """
 540        Returns the first non parenthesis child or self.
 541        """
 542        expression = self
 543        while type(expression) is Paren:
 544            expression = expression.this
 545        return expression
 546
 547    def unalias(self):
 548        """
 549        Returns the inner expression if this is an Alias.
 550        """
 551        if isinstance(self, Alias):
 552            return self.this
 553        return self
 554
 555    def unnest_operands(self):
 556        """
 557        Returns unnested operands as a tuple.
 558        """
 559        return tuple(arg.unnest() for arg in self.iter_expressions())
 560
 561    def flatten(self, unnest=True):
 562        """
 563        Returns a generator which yields child nodes whose parents are the same class.
 564
 565        A AND B AND C -> [A, B, C]
 566        """
 567        for node in self.dfs(prune=lambda n: n.parent and type(n) is not self.__class__):
 568            if type(node) is not self.__class__:
 569                yield node.unnest() if unnest and not isinstance(node, Subquery) else node
 570
 571    def __str__(self) -> str:
 572        return self.sql()
 573
 574    def __repr__(self) -> str:
 575        return _to_s(self)
 576
 577    def to_s(self) -> str:
 578        """
 579        Same as __repr__, but includes additional information which can be useful
 580        for debugging, like empty or missing args and the AST nodes' object IDs.
 581        """
 582        return _to_s(self, verbose=True)
 583
 584    def sql(self, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> str:
 585        """
 586        Returns SQL string representation of this tree.
 587
 588        Args:
 589            dialect: the dialect of the output SQL string (eg. "spark", "hive", "presto", "mysql").
 590            opts: other `sqlglot.generator.Generator` options.
 591
 592        Returns:
 593            The SQL string.
 594        """
 595        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 596
 597        return Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect).generate(self, **opts)
 598
 599    def transform(self, fun: t.Callable, *args: t.Any, copy: bool = True, **kwargs) -> Expression:
 600        """
 601        Visits all tree nodes (excluding already transformed ones)
 602        and applies the given transformation function to each node.
 603
 604        Args:
 605            fun: a function which takes a node as an argument and returns a
 606                new transformed node or the same node without modifications. If the function
 607                returns None, then the corresponding node will be removed from the syntax tree.
 608            copy: if set to True a new tree instance is constructed, otherwise the tree is
 609                modified in place.
 610
 611        Returns:
 612            The transformed tree.
 613        """
 614        root = None
 615        new_node = None
 616
 617        for node in (self.copy() if copy else self).dfs(prune=lambda n: n is not new_node):
 618            parent, arg_key, index = node.parent, node.arg_key, node.index
 619            new_node = fun(node, *args, **kwargs)
 620
 621            if not root:
 622                root = new_node
 623            elif new_node is not node:
 624                parent.set(arg_key, new_node, index)
 625
 626        assert root
 627        return root.assert_is(Expression)
 628
 629    @t.overload
 630    def replace(self, expression: E) -> E: ...
 631
 632    @t.overload
 633    def replace(self, expression: None) -> None: ...
 634
 635    def replace(self, expression):
 636        """
 637        Swap out this expression with a new expression.
 638
 639        For example::
 640
 641            >>> tree = Select().select("x").from_("tbl")
 642            >>> tree.find(Column).replace(column("y"))
 643            Column(
 644              this=Identifier(this=y, quoted=False))
 645            >>> tree.sql()
 646            'SELECT y FROM tbl'
 647
 648        Args:
 649            expression: new node
 650
 651        Returns:
 652            The new expression or expressions.
 653        """
 654        parent = self.parent
 655
 656        if not parent or parent is expression:
 657            return expression
 658
 659        key = self.arg_key
 660        value = parent.args.get(key)
 661
 662        if type(expression) is list and isinstance(value, Expression):
 663            # We are trying to replace an Expression with a list, so it's assumed that
 664            # the intention was to really replace the parent of this expression.
 665            value.parent.replace(expression)
 666        else:
 667            parent.set(key, expression, self.index)
 668
 669        if expression is not self:
 670            self.parent = None
 671            self.arg_key = None
 672            self.index = None
 673
 674        return expression
 675
 676    def pop(self: E) -> E:
 677        """
 678        Remove this expression from its AST.
 679
 680        Returns:
 681            The popped expression.
 682        """
 683        self.replace(None)
 684        return self
 685
 686    def assert_is(self, type_: t.Type[E]) -> E:
 687        """
 688        Assert that this `Expression` is an instance of `type_`.
 689
 690        If it is NOT an instance of `type_`, this raises an assertion error.
 691        Otherwise, this returns this expression.
 692
 693        Examples:
 694            This is useful for type security in chained expressions:
 695
 696            >>> import sqlglot
 697            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT x from y").assert_is(Select).select("z").sql()
 698            'SELECT x, z FROM y'
 699        """
 700        if not isinstance(self, type_):
 701            raise AssertionError(f"{self} is not {type_}.")
 702        return self
 703
 704    def error_messages(self, args: t.Optional[t.Sequence] = None) -> t.List[str]:
 705        """
 706        Checks if this expression is valid (e.g. all mandatory args are set).
 707
 708        Args:
 709            args: a sequence of values that were used to instantiate a Func expression. This is used
 710                to check that the provided arguments don't exceed the function argument limit.
 711
 712        Returns:
 713            A list of error messages for all possible errors that were found.
 714        """
 715        errors: t.List[str] = []
 716
 717        for k in self.args:
 718            if k not in self.arg_types:
 719                errors.append(f"Unexpected keyword: '{k}' for {self.__class__}")
 720        for k, mandatory in self.arg_types.items():
 721            v = self.args.get(k)
 722            if mandatory and (v is None or (isinstance(v, list) and not v)):
 723                errors.append(f"Required keyword: '{k}' missing for {self.__class__}")
 724
 725        if (
 726            args
 727            and isinstance(self, Func)
 728            and len(args) > len(self.arg_types)
 729            and not self.is_var_len_args
 730        ):
 731            errors.append(
 732                f"The number of provided arguments ({len(args)}) is greater than "
 733                f"the maximum number of supported arguments ({len(self.arg_types)})"
 734            )
 735
 736        return errors
 737
 738    def dump(self):
 739        """
 740        Dump this Expression to a JSON-serializable dict.
 741        """
 742        from sqlglot.serde import dump
 743
 744        return dump(self)
 745
 746    @classmethod
 747    def load(cls, obj):
 748        """
 749        Load a dict (as returned by `Expression.dump`) into an Expression instance.
 750        """
 751        from sqlglot.serde import load
 752
 753        return load(obj)
 754
 755    def and_(
 756        self,
 757        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 758        dialect: DialectType = None,
 759        copy: bool = True,
 760        **opts,
 761    ) -> Condition:
 762        """
 763        AND this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 764
 765        Example:
 766            >>> condition("x=1").and_("y=1").sql()
 767            'x = 1 AND y = 1'
 768
 769        Args:
 770            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 771                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 772            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 773            copy: whether to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 774            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 775
 776        Returns:
 777            The new And condition.
 778        """
 779        return and_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 780
 781    def or_(
 782        self,
 783        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
 784        dialect: DialectType = None,
 785        copy: bool = True,
 786        **opts,
 787    ) -> Condition:
 788        """
 789        OR this condition with one or multiple expressions.
 790
 791        Example:
 792            >>> condition("x=1").or_("y=1").sql()
 793            'x = 1 OR y = 1'
 794
 795        Args:
 796            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 797                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 798            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 799            copy: whether to copy the involved expressions (only applies to Expressions).
 800            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 801
 802        Returns:
 803            The new Or condition.
 804        """
 805        return or_(self, *expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 806
 807    def not_(self, copy: bool = True):
 808        """
 809        Wrap this condition with NOT.
 810
 811        Example:
 812            >>> condition("x=1").not_().sql()
 813            'NOT x = 1'
 814
 815        Args:
 816            copy: whether to copy this object.
 817
 818        Returns:
 819            The new Not instance.
 820        """
 821        return not_(self, copy=copy)
 822
 823    def as_(
 824        self,
 825        alias: str | Identifier,
 826        quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 827        dialect: DialectType = None,
 828        copy: bool = True,
 829        **opts,
 830    ) -> Alias:
 831        return alias_(self, alias, quoted=quoted, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 832
 833    def _binop(self, klass: t.Type[E], other: t.Any, reverse: bool = False) -> E:
 834        this = self.copy()
 835        other = convert(other, copy=True)
 836        if not isinstance(this, klass) and not isinstance(other, klass):
 837            this = _wrap(this, Binary)
 838            other = _wrap(other, Binary)
 839        if reverse:
 840            return klass(this=other, expression=this)
 841        return klass(this=this, expression=other)
 842
 843    def __getitem__(self, other: ExpOrStr | t.Tuple[ExpOrStr]) -> Bracket:
 844        return Bracket(
 845            this=self.copy(), expressions=[convert(e, copy=True) for e in ensure_list(other)]
 846        )
 847
 848    def __iter__(self) -> t.Iterator:
 849        if "expressions" in self.arg_types:
 850            return iter(self.args.get("expressions") or [])
 851        # We define this because __getitem__ converts Expression into an iterable, which is
 852        # problematic because one can hit infinite loops if they do "for x in some_expr: ..."
 853        # See: https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/
 854        raise TypeError(f"'{self.__class__.__name__}' object is not iterable")
 855
 856    def isin(
 857        self,
 858        *expressions: t.Any,
 859        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
 860        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
 861        copy: bool = True,
 862        **opts,
 863    ) -> In:
 864        subquery = maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None
 865        if subquery and not isinstance(subquery, Subquery):
 866            subquery = subquery.subquery(copy=False)
 867
 868        return In(
 869            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 870            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
 871            query=subquery,
 872            unnest=(
 873                Unnest(
 874                    expressions=[
 875                        maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts)
 876                        for e in ensure_list(unnest)
 877                    ]
 878                )
 879                if unnest
 880                else None
 881            ),
 882        )
 883
 884    def between(self, low: t.Any, high: t.Any, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Between:
 885        return Between(
 886            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 887            low=convert(low, copy=copy, **opts),
 888            high=convert(high, copy=copy, **opts),
 889        )
 890
 891    def is_(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Is:
 892        return self._binop(Is, other)
 893
 894    def like(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> Like:
 895        return self._binop(Like, other)
 896
 897    def ilike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> ILike:
 898        return self._binop(ILike, other)
 899
 900    def eq(self, other: t.Any) -> EQ:
 901        return self._binop(EQ, other)
 902
 903    def neq(self, other: t.Any) -> NEQ:
 904        return self._binop(NEQ, other)
 905
 906    def rlike(self, other: ExpOrStr) -> RegexpLike:
 907        return self._binop(RegexpLike, other)
 908
 909    def div(self, other: ExpOrStr, typed: bool = False, safe: bool = False) -> Div:
 910        div = self._binop(Div, other)
 911        div.args["typed"] = typed
 912        div.args["safe"] = safe
 913        return div
 914
 915    def asc(self, nulls_first: bool = True) -> Ordered:
 916        return Ordered(this=self.copy(), nulls_first=nulls_first)
 917
 918    def desc(self, nulls_first: bool = False) -> Ordered:
 919        return Ordered(this=self.copy(), desc=True, nulls_first=nulls_first)
 920
 921    def __lt__(self, other: t.Any) -> LT:
 922        return self._binop(LT, other)
 923
 924    def __le__(self, other: t.Any) -> LTE:
 925        return self._binop(LTE, other)
 926
 927    def __gt__(self, other: t.Any) -> GT:
 928        return self._binop(GT, other)
 929
 930    def __ge__(self, other: t.Any) -> GTE:
 931        return self._binop(GTE, other)
 932
 933    def __add__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 934        return self._binop(Add, other)
 935
 936    def __radd__(self, other: t.Any) -> Add:
 937        return self._binop(Add, other, reverse=True)
 938
 939    def __sub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 940        return self._binop(Sub, other)
 941
 942    def __rsub__(self, other: t.Any) -> Sub:
 943        return self._binop(Sub, other, reverse=True)
 944
 945    def __mul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 946        return self._binop(Mul, other)
 947
 948    def __rmul__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mul:
 949        return self._binop(Mul, other, reverse=True)
 950
 951    def __truediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 952        return self._binop(Div, other)
 953
 954    def __rtruediv__(self, other: t.Any) -> Div:
 955        return self._binop(Div, other, reverse=True)
 956
 957    def __floordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 958        return self._binop(IntDiv, other)
 959
 960    def __rfloordiv__(self, other: t.Any) -> IntDiv:
 961        return self._binop(IntDiv, other, reverse=True)
 962
 963    def __mod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 964        return self._binop(Mod, other)
 965
 966    def __rmod__(self, other: t.Any) -> Mod:
 967        return self._binop(Mod, other, reverse=True)
 968
 969    def __pow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 970        return self._binop(Pow, other)
 971
 972    def __rpow__(self, other: t.Any) -> Pow:
 973        return self._binop(Pow, other, reverse=True)
 974
 975    def __and__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 976        return self._binop(And, other)
 977
 978    def __rand__(self, other: t.Any) -> And:
 979        return self._binop(And, other, reverse=True)
 980
 981    def __or__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 982        return self._binop(Or, other)
 983
 984    def __ror__(self, other: t.Any) -> Or:
 985        return self._binop(Or, other, reverse=True)
 986
 987    def __neg__(self) -> Neg:
 988        return Neg(this=_wrap(self.copy(), Binary))
 989
 990    def __invert__(self) -> Not:
 991        return not_(self.copy())
 992
 993
 994IntoType = t.Union[
 995    str,
 996    t.Type[Expression],
 997    t.Collection[t.Union[str, t.Type[Expression]]],
 998]
 999ExpOrStr = t.Union[str, Expression]
1000
1001
1002class Condition(Expression):
1003    """Logical conditions like x AND y, or simply x"""
1004
1005
1006class Predicate(Condition):
1007    """Relationships like x = y, x > 1, x >= y."""
1008
1009
1010class DerivedTable(Expression):
1011    @property
1012    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1013        return self.this.selects if isinstance(self.this, Query) else []
1014
1015    @property
1016    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1017        return [select.output_name for select in self.selects]
1018
1019
1020class Query(Expression):
1021    def subquery(self, alias: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None, copy: bool = True) -> Subquery:
1022        """
1023        Returns a `Subquery` that wraps around this query.
1024
1025        Example:
1026            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
1027            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
1028            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
1029
1030        Args:
1031            alias: an optional alias for the subquery.
1032            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1033        """
1034        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1035        if not isinstance(alias, Expression):
1036            alias = TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None
1037
1038        return Subquery(this=instance, alias=alias)
1039
1040    def limit(
1041        self: Q, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
1042    ) -> Q:
1043        """
1044        Adds a LIMIT clause to this query.
1045
1046        Example:
1047            >>> select("1").union(select("1")).limit(1).sql()
1048            'SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1 LIMIT 1'
1049
1050        Args:
1051            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
1052                This can also be an integer.
1053                If a `Limit` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1054                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
1055            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1056            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1057            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1058
1059        Returns:
1060            A limited Select expression.
1061        """
1062        return _apply_builder(
1063            expression=expression,
1064            instance=self,
1065            arg="limit",
1066            into=Limit,
1067            prefix="LIMIT",
1068            dialect=dialect,
1069            copy=copy,
1070            into_arg="expression",
1071            **opts,
1072        )
1073
1074    def offset(
1075        self: Q, expression: ExpOrStr | int, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
1076    ) -> Q:
1077        """
1078        Set the OFFSET expression.
1079
1080        Example:
1081            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
1082            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
1083
1084        Args:
1085            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
1086                This can also be an integer.
1087                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1088                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
1089            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1090            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1091            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1092
1093        Returns:
1094            The modified Select expression.
1095        """
1096        return _apply_builder(
1097            expression=expression,
1098            instance=self,
1099            arg="offset",
1100            into=Offset,
1101            prefix="OFFSET",
1102            dialect=dialect,
1103            copy=copy,
1104            into_arg="expression",
1105            **opts,
1106        )
1107
1108    def order_by(
1109        self: Q,
1110        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1111        append: bool = True,
1112        dialect: DialectType = None,
1113        copy: bool = True,
1114        **opts,
1115    ) -> Q:
1116        """
1117        Set the ORDER BY expression.
1118
1119        Example:
1120            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
1121            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
1122
1123        Args:
1124            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1125                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1126                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
1127            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1128                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
1129            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1130            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1131            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1132
1133        Returns:
1134            The modified Select expression.
1135        """
1136        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1137            *expressions,
1138            instance=self,
1139            arg="order",
1140            append=append,
1141            copy=copy,
1142            prefix="ORDER BY",
1143            into=Order,
1144            dialect=dialect,
1145            **opts,
1146        )
1147
1148    @property
1149    def ctes(self) -> t.List[CTE]:
1150        """Returns a list of all the CTEs attached to this query."""
1151        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1152        return with_.expressions if with_ else []
1153
1154    @property
1155    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1156        """Returns the query's projections."""
1157        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `selects`")
1158
1159    @property
1160    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1161        """Returns the output names of the query's projections."""
1162        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `named_selects`")
1163
1164    def select(
1165        self: Q,
1166        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1167        append: bool = True,
1168        dialect: DialectType = None,
1169        copy: bool = True,
1170        **opts,
1171    ) -> Q:
1172        """
1173        Append to or set the SELECT expressions.
1174
1175        Example:
1176            >>> Select().select("x", "y").sql()
1177            'SELECT x, y'
1178
1179        Args:
1180            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1181                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1182            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1183                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1184            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1185            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1186            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1187
1188        Returns:
1189            The modified Query expression.
1190        """
1191        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `select`")
1192
1193    def with_(
1194        self: Q,
1195        alias: ExpOrStr,
1196        as_: ExpOrStr,
1197        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
1198        append: bool = True,
1199        dialect: DialectType = None,
1200        copy: bool = True,
1201        **opts,
1202    ) -> Q:
1203        """
1204        Append to or set the common table expressions.
1205
1206        Example:
1207            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
1208            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
1209
1210        Args:
1211            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1212                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1213            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
1214                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1215            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
1216            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1217                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1218            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1219            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1220            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1221
1222        Returns:
1223            The modified expression.
1224        """
1225        return _apply_cte_builder(
1226            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
1227        )
1228
1229    def union(
1230        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
1231    ) -> Union:
1232        """
1233        Builds a UNION expression.
1234
1235        Example:
1236            >>> import sqlglot
1237            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
1238            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
1239
1240        Args:
1241            expression: the SQL code string.
1242                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1243            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
1244            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1245            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1246
1247        Returns:
1248            The new Union expression.
1249        """
1250        return union(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1251
1252    def intersect(
1253        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
1254    ) -> Intersect:
1255        """
1256        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
1257
1258        Example:
1259            >>> import sqlglot
1260            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
1261            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
1262
1263        Args:
1264            expression: the SQL code string.
1265                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1266            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
1267            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1268            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1269
1270        Returns:
1271            The new Intersect expression.
1272        """
1273        return intersect(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1274
1275    def except_(
1276        self, expression: ExpOrStr, distinct: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts
1277    ) -> Except:
1278        """
1279        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
1280
1281        Example:
1282            >>> import sqlglot
1283            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
1284            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
1285
1286        Args:
1287            expression: the SQL code string.
1288                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1289            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
1290            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1291            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1292
1293        Returns:
1294            The new Except expression.
1295        """
1296        return except_(left=self, right=expression, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1297
1298
1299class UDTF(DerivedTable):
1300    @property
1301    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1302        alias = self.args.get("alias")
1303        return alias.columns if alias else []
1304
1305
1306class Cache(Expression):
1307    arg_types = {
1308        "this": True,
1309        "lazy": False,
1310        "options": False,
1311        "expression": False,
1312    }
1313
1314
1315class Uncache(Expression):
1316    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False}
1317
1318
1319class Refresh(Expression):
1320    pass
1321
1322
1323class DDL(Expression):
1324    @property
1325    def ctes(self) -> t.List[CTE]:
1326        """Returns a list of all the CTEs attached to this statement."""
1327        with_ = self.args.get("with")
1328        return with_.expressions if with_ else []
1329
1330    @property
1331    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
1332        """If this statement contains a query (e.g. a CTAS), this returns the query's projections."""
1333        return self.expression.selects if isinstance(self.expression, Query) else []
1334
1335    @property
1336    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
1337        """
1338        If this statement contains a query (e.g. a CTAS), this returns the output
1339        names of the query's projections.
1340        """
1341        return self.expression.named_selects if isinstance(self.expression, Query) else []
1342
1343
1344class DML(Expression):
1345    def returning(
1346        self,
1347        expression: ExpOrStr,
1348        dialect: DialectType = None,
1349        copy: bool = True,
1350        **opts,
1351    ) -> DML:
1352        """
1353        Set the RETURNING expression. Not supported by all dialects.
1354
1355        Example:
1356            >>> delete("tbl").returning("*", dialect="postgres").sql()
1357            'DELETE FROM tbl RETURNING *'
1358
1359        Args:
1360            expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
1361                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1362            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1363            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1364            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1365
1366        Returns:
1367            Delete: the modified expression.
1368        """
1369        return _apply_builder(
1370            expression=expression,
1371            instance=self,
1372            arg="returning",
1373            prefix="RETURNING",
1374            dialect=dialect,
1375            copy=copy,
1376            into=Returning,
1377            **opts,
1378        )
1379
1380
1381class Create(DDL):
1382    arg_types = {
1383        "with": False,
1384        "this": True,
1385        "kind": True,
1386        "expression": False,
1387        "exists": False,
1388        "properties": False,
1389        "replace": False,
1390        "unique": False,
1391        "indexes": False,
1392        "no_schema_binding": False,
1393        "begin": False,
1394        "end": False,
1395        "clone": False,
1396        "concurrently": False,
1397        "clustered": False,
1398    }
1399
1400    @property
1401    def kind(self) -> t.Optional[str]:
1402        kind = self.args.get("kind")
1403        return kind and kind.upper()
1404
1405
1406class SequenceProperties(Expression):
1407    arg_types = {
1408        "increment": False,
1409        "minvalue": False,
1410        "maxvalue": False,
1411        "cache": False,
1412        "start": False,
1413        "owned": False,
1414        "options": False,
1415    }
1416
1417
1418class TruncateTable(Expression):
1419    arg_types = {
1420        "expressions": True,
1421        "is_database": False,
1422        "exists": False,
1423        "only": False,
1424        "cluster": False,
1425        "identity": False,
1426        "option": False,
1427        "partition": False,
1428    }
1429
1430
1431# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-clone
1432# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_clone_statement
1433# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/data-definition-language#create_table_copy
1434class Clone(Expression):
1435    arg_types = {"this": True, "shallow": False, "copy": False}
1436
1437
1438class Describe(Expression):
1439    arg_types = {"this": True, "style": False, "kind": False, "expressions": False}
1440
1441
1442# https://duckdb.org/docs/guides/meta/summarize.html
1443class Summarize(Expression):
1444    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False}
1445
1446
1447class Kill(Expression):
1448    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
1449
1450
1451class Pragma(Expression):
1452    pass
1453
1454
1455class Declare(Expression):
1456    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1457
1458
1459class DeclareItem(Expression):
1460    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "default": False}
1461
1462
1463class Set(Expression):
1464    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "unset": False, "tag": False}
1465
1466
1467class Heredoc(Expression):
1468    arg_types = {"this": True, "tag": False}
1469
1470
1471class SetItem(Expression):
1472    arg_types = {
1473        "this": False,
1474        "expressions": False,
1475        "kind": False,
1476        "collate": False,  # MySQL SET NAMES statement
1477        "global": False,
1478    }
1479
1480
1481class Show(Expression):
1482    arg_types = {
1483        "this": True,
1484        "history": False,
1485        "terse": False,
1486        "target": False,
1487        "offset": False,
1488        "starts_with": False,
1489        "limit": False,
1490        "from": False,
1491        "like": False,
1492        "where": False,
1493        "db": False,
1494        "scope": False,
1495        "scope_kind": False,
1496        "full": False,
1497        "mutex": False,
1498        "query": False,
1499        "channel": False,
1500        "global": False,
1501        "log": False,
1502        "position": False,
1503        "types": False,
1504    }
1505
1506
1507class UserDefinedFunction(Expression):
1508    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
1509
1510
1511class CharacterSet(Expression):
1512    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
1513
1514
1515class With(Expression):
1516    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "recursive": False}
1517
1518    @property
1519    def recursive(self) -> bool:
1520        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
1521
1522
1523class WithinGroup(Expression):
1524    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
1525
1526
1527# clickhouse supports scalar ctes
1528# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/with
1529class CTE(DerivedTable):
1530    arg_types = {
1531        "this": True,
1532        "alias": True,
1533        "scalar": False,
1534        "materialized": False,
1535    }
1536
1537
1538class ProjectionDef(Expression):
1539    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1540
1541
1542class TableAlias(Expression):
1543    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
1544
1545    @property
1546    def columns(self):
1547        return self.args.get("columns") or []
1548
1549
1550class BitString(Condition):
1551    pass
1552
1553
1554class HexString(Condition):
1555    pass
1556
1557
1558class ByteString(Condition):
1559    pass
1560
1561
1562class RawString(Condition):
1563    pass
1564
1565
1566class UnicodeString(Condition):
1567    arg_types = {"this": True, "escape": False}
1568
1569
1570class Column(Condition):
1571    arg_types = {"this": True, "table": False, "db": False, "catalog": False, "join_mark": False}
1572
1573    @property
1574    def table(self) -> str:
1575        return self.text("table")
1576
1577    @property
1578    def db(self) -> str:
1579        return self.text("db")
1580
1581    @property
1582    def catalog(self) -> str:
1583        return self.text("catalog")
1584
1585    @property
1586    def output_name(self) -> str:
1587        return self.name
1588
1589    @property
1590    def parts(self) -> t.List[Identifier]:
1591        """Return the parts of a column in order catalog, db, table, name."""
1592        return [
1593            t.cast(Identifier, self.args[part])
1594            for part in ("catalog", "db", "table", "this")
1595            if self.args.get(part)
1596        ]
1597
1598    def to_dot(self) -> Dot | Identifier:
1599        """Converts the column into a dot expression."""
1600        parts = self.parts
1601        parent = self.parent
1602
1603        while parent:
1604            if isinstance(parent, Dot):
1605                parts.append(parent.expression)
1606            parent = parent.parent
1607
1608        return Dot.build(deepcopy(parts)) if len(parts) > 1 else parts[0]
1609
1610
1611class ColumnPosition(Expression):
1612    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
1613
1614
1615class ColumnDef(Expression):
1616    arg_types = {
1617        "this": True,
1618        "kind": False,
1619        "constraints": False,
1620        "exists": False,
1621        "position": False,
1622    }
1623
1624    @property
1625    def constraints(self) -> t.List[ColumnConstraint]:
1626        return self.args.get("constraints") or []
1627
1628    @property
1629    def kind(self) -> t.Optional[DataType]:
1630        return self.args.get("kind")
1631
1632
1633class AlterColumn(Expression):
1634    arg_types = {
1635        "this": True,
1636        "dtype": False,
1637        "collate": False,
1638        "using": False,
1639        "default": False,
1640        "drop": False,
1641        "comment": False,
1642        "allow_null": False,
1643    }
1644
1645
1646# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_ALTER_TABLE.html
1647class AlterDistStyle(Expression):
1648    pass
1649
1650
1651class AlterSortKey(Expression):
1652    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False, "compound": False}
1653
1654
1655class AlterSet(Expression):
1656    arg_types = {
1657        "expressions": False,
1658        "option": False,
1659        "tablespace": False,
1660        "access_method": False,
1661        "file_format": False,
1662        "copy_options": False,
1663        "tag": False,
1664        "location": False,
1665        "serde": False,
1666    }
1667
1668
1669class RenameColumn(Expression):
1670    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True, "exists": False}
1671
1672
1673class RenameTable(Expression):
1674    pass
1675
1676
1677class SwapTable(Expression):
1678    pass
1679
1680
1681class Comment(Expression):
1682    arg_types = {
1683        "this": True,
1684        "kind": True,
1685        "expression": True,
1686        "exists": False,
1687        "materialized": False,
1688    }
1689
1690
1691class Comprehension(Expression):
1692    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "iterator": True, "condition": False}
1693
1694
1695# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1696class MergeTreeTTLAction(Expression):
1697    arg_types = {
1698        "this": True,
1699        "delete": False,
1700        "recompress": False,
1701        "to_disk": False,
1702        "to_volume": False,
1703    }
1704
1705
1706# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/engines/table-engines/mergetree-family/mergetree#mergetree-table-ttl
1707class MergeTreeTTL(Expression):
1708    arg_types = {
1709        "expressions": True,
1710        "where": False,
1711        "group": False,
1712        "aggregates": False,
1713    }
1714
1715
1716# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1717class IndexConstraintOption(Expression):
1718    arg_types = {
1719        "key_block_size": False,
1720        "using": False,
1721        "parser": False,
1722        "comment": False,
1723        "visible": False,
1724        "engine_attr": False,
1725        "secondary_engine_attr": False,
1726    }
1727
1728
1729class ColumnConstraint(Expression):
1730    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": True}
1731
1732    @property
1733    def kind(self) -> ColumnConstraintKind:
1734        return self.args["kind"]
1735
1736
1737class ColumnConstraintKind(Expression):
1738    pass
1739
1740
1741class AutoIncrementColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1742    pass
1743
1744
1745class PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1746    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
1747
1748
1749class CaseSpecificColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1750    arg_types = {"not_": True}
1751
1752
1753class CharacterSetColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1754    arg_types = {"this": True}
1755
1756
1757class CheckColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1758    arg_types = {"this": True, "enforced": False}
1759
1760
1761class ClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1762    pass
1763
1764
1765class CollateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1766    pass
1767
1768
1769class CommentColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1770    pass
1771
1772
1773class CompressColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1774    pass
1775
1776
1777class DateFormatColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1778    arg_types = {"this": True}
1779
1780
1781class DefaultColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1782    pass
1783
1784
1785class EncodeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1786    pass
1787
1788
1789# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createtable.html#SQL-CREATETABLE-EXCLUDE
1790class ExcludeColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1791    pass
1792
1793
1794class EphemeralColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1795    arg_types = {"this": False}
1796
1797
1798class WithOperator(Expression):
1799    arg_types = {"this": True, "op": True}
1800
1801
1802class GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1803    # this: True -> ALWAYS, this: False -> BY DEFAULT
1804    arg_types = {
1805        "this": False,
1806        "expression": False,
1807        "on_null": False,
1808        "start": False,
1809        "increment": False,
1810        "minvalue": False,
1811        "maxvalue": False,
1812        "cycle": False,
1813    }
1814
1815
1816class GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1817    arg_types = {"start": False, "hidden": False}
1818
1819
1820# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
1821# https://github.com/ClickHouse/ClickHouse/blob/master/src/Parsers/ParserCreateQuery.h#L646
1822class IndexColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1823    arg_types = {
1824        "this": False,
1825        "expressions": False,
1826        "kind": False,
1827        "index_type": False,
1828        "options": False,
1829        "expression": False,  # Clickhouse
1830        "granularity": False,
1831    }
1832
1833
1834class InlineLengthColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1835    pass
1836
1837
1838class NonClusteredColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1839    pass
1840
1841
1842class NotForReplicationColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1843    arg_types = {}
1844
1845
1846# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-table
1847class MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1848    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
1849
1850
1851class NotNullColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1852    arg_types = {"allow_null": False}
1853
1854
1855# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.7/en/timestamp-initialization.html
1856class OnUpdateColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1857    pass
1858
1859
1860# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-table
1861class TagColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1862    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1863
1864
1865# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-external-table#optional-parameters
1866class TransformColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1867    pass
1868
1869
1870class PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1871    arg_types = {"desc": False}
1872
1873
1874class TitleColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1875    pass
1876
1877
1878class UniqueColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1879    arg_types = {"this": False, "index_type": False, "on_conflict": False, "nulls": False}
1880
1881
1882class UppercaseColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1883    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
1884
1885
1886class PathColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1887    pass
1888
1889
1890# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/sql/create-table
1891class ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1892    pass
1893
1894
1895# computed column expression
1896# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/statements/create-table-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
1897class ComputedColumnConstraint(ColumnConstraintKind):
1898    arg_types = {"this": True, "persisted": False, "not_null": False}
1899
1900
1901class Constraint(Expression):
1902    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1903
1904
1905class Delete(DML):
1906    arg_types = {
1907        "with": False,
1908        "this": False,
1909        "using": False,
1910        "where": False,
1911        "returning": False,
1912        "limit": False,
1913        "tables": False,  # Multiple-Table Syntax (MySQL)
1914    }
1915
1916    def delete(
1917        self,
1918        table: ExpOrStr,
1919        dialect: DialectType = None,
1920        copy: bool = True,
1921        **opts,
1922    ) -> Delete:
1923        """
1924        Create a DELETE expression or replace the table on an existing DELETE expression.
1925
1926        Example:
1927            >>> delete("tbl").sql()
1928            'DELETE FROM tbl'
1929
1930        Args:
1931            table: the table from which to delete.
1932            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1933            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1934            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1935
1936        Returns:
1937            Delete: the modified expression.
1938        """
1939        return _apply_builder(
1940            expression=table,
1941            instance=self,
1942            arg="this",
1943            dialect=dialect,
1944            into=Table,
1945            copy=copy,
1946            **opts,
1947        )
1948
1949    def where(
1950        self,
1951        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
1952        append: bool = True,
1953        dialect: DialectType = None,
1954        copy: bool = True,
1955        **opts,
1956    ) -> Delete:
1957        """
1958        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
1959
1960        Example:
1961            >>> delete("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
1962            "DELETE FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
1963
1964        Args:
1965            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1966                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1967                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1968            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1969                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1970            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1971            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1972            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1973
1974        Returns:
1975            Delete: the modified expression.
1976        """
1977        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1978            *expressions,
1979            instance=self,
1980            arg="where",
1981            append=append,
1982            into=Where,
1983            dialect=dialect,
1984            copy=copy,
1985            **opts,
1986        )
1987
1988
1989class Drop(Expression):
1990    arg_types = {
1991        "this": False,
1992        "kind": False,
1993        "expressions": False,
1994        "exists": False,
1995        "temporary": False,
1996        "materialized": False,
1997        "cascade": False,
1998        "constraints": False,
1999        "purge": False,
2000        "cluster": False,
2001    }
2002
2003
2004class Filter(Expression):
2005    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2006
2007
2008class Check(Expression):
2009    pass
2010
2011
2012class Changes(Expression):
2013    arg_types = {"information": True, "at_before": False, "end": False}
2014
2015
2016# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/connect-by
2017class Connect(Expression):
2018    arg_types = {"start": False, "connect": True, "nocycle": False}
2019
2020
2021class CopyParameter(Expression):
2022    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "expressions": False}
2023
2024
2025class Copy(DML):
2026    arg_types = {
2027        "this": True,
2028        "kind": True,
2029        "files": True,
2030        "credentials": False,
2031        "format": False,
2032        "params": False,
2033    }
2034
2035
2036class Credentials(Expression):
2037    arg_types = {
2038        "credentials": False,
2039        "encryption": False,
2040        "storage": False,
2041        "iam_role": False,
2042        "region": False,
2043    }
2044
2045
2046class Prior(Expression):
2047    pass
2048
2049
2050class Directory(Expression):
2051    # https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.0.0-preview/sql-ref-syntax-dml-insert-overwrite-directory-hive.html
2052    arg_types = {"this": True, "local": False, "row_format": False}
2053
2054
2055class ForeignKey(Expression):
2056    arg_types = {
2057        "expressions": True,
2058        "reference": False,
2059        "delete": False,
2060        "update": False,
2061    }
2062
2063
2064class ColumnPrefix(Expression):
2065    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2066
2067
2068class PrimaryKey(Expression):
2069    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "options": False}
2070
2071
2072# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/sql-selectinto.html
2073# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_SELECT_INTO.html#r_SELECT_INTO-examples
2074class Into(Expression):
2075    arg_types = {"this": True, "temporary": False, "unlogged": False}
2076
2077
2078class From(Expression):
2079    @property
2080    def name(self) -> str:
2081        return self.this.name
2082
2083    @property
2084    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
2085        return self.this.alias_or_name
2086
2087
2088class Having(Expression):
2089    pass
2090
2091
2092class Hint(Expression):
2093    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2094
2095
2096class JoinHint(Expression):
2097    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
2098
2099
2100class Identifier(Expression):
2101    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False, "global": False, "temporary": False}
2102
2103    @property
2104    def quoted(self) -> bool:
2105        return bool(self.args.get("quoted"))
2106
2107    @property
2108    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
2109        return (self.this, self.quoted)
2110
2111    @property
2112    def output_name(self) -> str:
2113        return self.name
2114
2115
2116# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/indexes-opclass.html
2117class Opclass(Expression):
2118    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2119
2120
2121class Index(Expression):
2122    arg_types = {
2123        "this": False,
2124        "table": False,
2125        "unique": False,
2126        "primary": False,
2127        "amp": False,  # teradata
2128        "params": False,
2129    }
2130
2131
2132class IndexParameters(Expression):
2133    arg_types = {
2134        "using": False,
2135        "include": False,
2136        "columns": False,
2137        "with_storage": False,
2138        "partition_by": False,
2139        "tablespace": False,
2140        "where": False,
2141        "on": False,
2142    }
2143
2144
2145class Insert(DDL, DML):
2146    arg_types = {
2147        "hint": False,
2148        "with": False,
2149        "is_function": False,
2150        "this": False,
2151        "expression": False,
2152        "conflict": False,
2153        "returning": False,
2154        "overwrite": False,
2155        "exists": False,
2156        "alternative": False,
2157        "where": False,
2158        "ignore": False,
2159        "by_name": False,
2160        "stored": False,
2161    }
2162
2163    def with_(
2164        self,
2165        alias: ExpOrStr,
2166        as_: ExpOrStr,
2167        recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
2168        append: bool = True,
2169        dialect: DialectType = None,
2170        copy: bool = True,
2171        **opts,
2172    ) -> Insert:
2173        """
2174        Append to or set the common table expressions.
2175
2176        Example:
2177            >>> insert("SELECT x FROM cte", "t").with_("cte", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").sql()
2178            'WITH cte AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) INSERT INTO t SELECT x FROM cte'
2179
2180        Args:
2181            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
2182                If an `Expression` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
2183            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
2184                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2185            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
2186            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
2187                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
2188            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2189            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2190            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2191
2192        Returns:
2193            The modified expression.
2194        """
2195        return _apply_cte_builder(
2196            self, alias, as_, recursive=recursive, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2197        )
2198
2199
2200class OnConflict(Expression):
2201    arg_types = {
2202        "duplicate": False,
2203        "expressions": False,
2204        "action": False,
2205        "conflict_keys": False,
2206        "constraint": False,
2207    }
2208
2209
2210class Returning(Expression):
2211    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "into": False}
2212
2213
2214# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/charset-introducer.html
2215class Introducer(Expression):
2216    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2217
2218
2219# national char, like n'utf8'
2220class National(Expression):
2221    pass
2222
2223
2224class LoadData(Expression):
2225    arg_types = {
2226        "this": True,
2227        "local": False,
2228        "overwrite": False,
2229        "inpath": True,
2230        "partition": False,
2231        "input_format": False,
2232        "serde": False,
2233    }
2234
2235
2236class Partition(Expression):
2237    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2238
2239
2240class PartitionRange(Expression):
2241    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2242
2243
2244# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/alter/partition#how-to-set-partition-expression
2245class PartitionId(Expression):
2246    pass
2247
2248
2249class Fetch(Expression):
2250    arg_types = {
2251        "direction": False,
2252        "count": False,
2253        "percent": False,
2254        "with_ties": False,
2255    }
2256
2257
2258class Group(Expression):
2259    arg_types = {
2260        "expressions": False,
2261        "grouping_sets": False,
2262        "cube": False,
2263        "rollup": False,
2264        "totals": False,
2265        "all": False,
2266    }
2267
2268
2269class Lambda(Expression):
2270    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
2271
2272
2273class Limit(Expression):
2274    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "offset": False, "expressions": False}
2275
2276
2277class Literal(Condition):
2278    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_string": True}
2279
2280    @property
2281    def hashable_args(self) -> t.Any:
2282        return (self.this, self.args.get("is_string"))
2283
2284    @classmethod
2285    def number(cls, number) -> Literal:
2286        return cls(this=str(number), is_string=False)
2287
2288    @classmethod
2289    def string(cls, string) -> Literal:
2290        return cls(this=str(string), is_string=True)
2291
2292    @property
2293    def output_name(self) -> str:
2294        return self.name
2295
2296    def to_py(self) -> int | str | Decimal:
2297        if self.is_number:
2298            try:
2299                return int(self.this)
2300            except ValueError:
2301                return Decimal(self.this)
2302        return self.this
2303
2304
2305class Join(Expression):
2306    arg_types = {
2307        "this": True,
2308        "on": False,
2309        "side": False,
2310        "kind": False,
2311        "using": False,
2312        "method": False,
2313        "global": False,
2314        "hint": False,
2315        "match_condition": False,  # Snowflake
2316    }
2317
2318    @property
2319    def method(self) -> str:
2320        return self.text("method").upper()
2321
2322    @property
2323    def kind(self) -> str:
2324        return self.text("kind").upper()
2325
2326    @property
2327    def side(self) -> str:
2328        return self.text("side").upper()
2329
2330    @property
2331    def hint(self) -> str:
2332        return self.text("hint").upper()
2333
2334    @property
2335    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
2336        return self.this.alias_or_name
2337
2338    def on(
2339        self,
2340        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2341        append: bool = True,
2342        dialect: DialectType = None,
2343        copy: bool = True,
2344        **opts,
2345    ) -> Join:
2346        """
2347        Append to or set the ON expressions.
2348
2349        Example:
2350            >>> import sqlglot
2351            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
2352            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
2353
2354        Args:
2355            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2356                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2357                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
2358            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
2359                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2360            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2361            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2362            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2363
2364        Returns:
2365            The modified Join expression.
2366        """
2367        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
2368            *expressions,
2369            instance=self,
2370            arg="on",
2371            append=append,
2372            dialect=dialect,
2373            copy=copy,
2374            **opts,
2375        )
2376
2377        if join.kind == "CROSS":
2378            join.set("kind", None)
2379
2380        return join
2381
2382    def using(
2383        self,
2384        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
2385        append: bool = True,
2386        dialect: DialectType = None,
2387        copy: bool = True,
2388        **opts,
2389    ) -> Join:
2390        """
2391        Append to or set the USING expressions.
2392
2393        Example:
2394            >>> import sqlglot
2395            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
2396            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
2397
2398        Args:
2399            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
2400                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
2401            append: if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
2402                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
2403            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
2404            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
2405            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2406
2407        Returns:
2408            The modified Join expression.
2409        """
2410        join = _apply_list_builder(
2411            *expressions,
2412            instance=self,
2413            arg="using",
2414            append=append,
2415            dialect=dialect,
2416            copy=copy,
2417            **opts,
2418        )
2419
2420        if join.kind == "CROSS":
2421            join.set("kind", None)
2422
2423        return join
2424
2425
2426class Lateral(UDTF):
2427    arg_types = {
2428        "this": True,
2429        "view": False,
2430        "outer": False,
2431        "alias": False,
2432        "cross_apply": False,  # True -> CROSS APPLY, False -> OUTER APPLY
2433    }
2434
2435
2436class MatchRecognizeMeasure(Expression):
2437    arg_types = {
2438        "this": True,
2439        "window_frame": False,
2440    }
2441
2442
2443class MatchRecognize(Expression):
2444    arg_types = {
2445        "partition_by": False,
2446        "order": False,
2447        "measures": False,
2448        "rows": False,
2449        "after": False,
2450        "pattern": False,
2451        "define": False,
2452        "alias": False,
2453    }
2454
2455
2456# Clickhouse FROM FINAL modifier
2457# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/from/#final-modifier
2458class Final(Expression):
2459    pass
2460
2461
2462class Offset(Expression):
2463    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "expressions": False}
2464
2465
2466class Order(Expression):
2467    arg_types = {
2468        "this": False,
2469        "expressions": True,
2470        "interpolate": False,
2471        "siblings": False,
2472    }
2473
2474
2475# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/select/order-by#order-by-expr-with-fill-modifier
2476class WithFill(Expression):
2477    arg_types = {"from": False, "to": False, "step": False}
2478
2479
2480# hive specific sorts
2481# https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/Hive/LanguageManual+SortBy
2482class Cluster(Order):
2483    pass
2484
2485
2486class Distribute(Order):
2487    pass
2488
2489
2490class Sort(Order):
2491    pass
2492
2493
2494class Ordered(Expression):
2495    arg_types = {"this": True, "desc": False, "nulls_first": True, "with_fill": False}
2496
2497
2498class Property(Expression):
2499    arg_types = {"this": True, "value": True}
2500
2501
2502class AllowedValuesProperty(Expression):
2503    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2504
2505
2506class AlgorithmProperty(Property):
2507    arg_types = {"this": True}
2508
2509
2510class AutoIncrementProperty(Property):
2511    arg_types = {"this": True}
2512
2513
2514# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/prescriptive-guidance/latest/materialized-views-redshift/refreshing-materialized-views.html
2515class AutoRefreshProperty(Property):
2516    arg_types = {"this": True}
2517
2518
2519class BackupProperty(Property):
2520    arg_types = {"this": True}
2521
2522
2523class BlockCompressionProperty(Property):
2524    arg_types = {
2525        "autotemp": False,
2526        "always": False,
2527        "default": False,
2528        "manual": False,
2529        "never": False,
2530    }
2531
2532
2533class CharacterSetProperty(Property):
2534    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": True}
2535
2536
2537class ChecksumProperty(Property):
2538    arg_types = {"on": False, "default": False}
2539
2540
2541class CollateProperty(Property):
2542    arg_types = {"this": True, "default": False}
2543
2544
2545class CopyGrantsProperty(Property):
2546    arg_types = {}
2547
2548
2549class DataBlocksizeProperty(Property):
2550    arg_types = {
2551        "size": False,
2552        "units": False,
2553        "minimum": False,
2554        "maximum": False,
2555        "default": False,
2556    }
2557
2558
2559class DataDeletionProperty(Property):
2560    arg_types = {"on": True, "filter_col": False, "retention_period": False}
2561
2562
2563class DefinerProperty(Property):
2564    arg_types = {"this": True}
2565
2566
2567class DistKeyProperty(Property):
2568    arg_types = {"this": True}
2569
2570
2571class DistStyleProperty(Property):
2572    arg_types = {"this": True}
2573
2574
2575class EngineProperty(Property):
2576    arg_types = {"this": True}
2577
2578
2579class HeapProperty(Property):
2580    arg_types = {}
2581
2582
2583class ToTableProperty(Property):
2584    arg_types = {"this": True}
2585
2586
2587class ExecuteAsProperty(Property):
2588    arg_types = {"this": True}
2589
2590
2591class ExternalProperty(Property):
2592    arg_types = {"this": False}
2593
2594
2595class FallbackProperty(Property):
2596    arg_types = {"no": True, "protection": False}
2597
2598
2599class FileFormatProperty(Property):
2600    arg_types = {"this": True}
2601
2602
2603class FreespaceProperty(Property):
2604    arg_types = {"this": True, "percent": False}
2605
2606
2607class GlobalProperty(Property):
2608    arg_types = {}
2609
2610
2611class IcebergProperty(Property):
2612    arg_types = {}
2613
2614
2615class InheritsProperty(Property):
2616    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2617
2618
2619class InputModelProperty(Property):
2620    arg_types = {"this": True}
2621
2622
2623class OutputModelProperty(Property):
2624    arg_types = {"this": True}
2625
2626
2627class IsolatedLoadingProperty(Property):
2628    arg_types = {"no": False, "concurrent": False, "target": False}
2629
2630
2631class JournalProperty(Property):
2632    arg_types = {
2633        "no": False,
2634        "dual": False,
2635        "before": False,
2636        "local": False,
2637        "after": False,
2638    }
2639
2640
2641class LanguageProperty(Property):
2642    arg_types = {"this": True}
2643
2644
2645# spark ddl
2646class ClusteredByProperty(Property):
2647    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "sorted_by": False, "buckets": True}
2648
2649
2650class DictProperty(Property):
2651    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "settings": False}
2652
2653
2654class DictSubProperty(Property):
2655    pass
2656
2657
2658class DictRange(Property):
2659    arg_types = {"this": True, "min": True, "max": True}
2660
2661
2662class DynamicProperty(Property):
2663    arg_types = {}
2664
2665
2666# Clickhouse CREATE ... ON CLUSTER modifier
2667# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/distributed-ddl
2668class OnCluster(Property):
2669    arg_types = {"this": True}
2670
2671
2672class LikeProperty(Property):
2673    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
2674
2675
2676class LocationProperty(Property):
2677    arg_types = {"this": True}
2678
2679
2680class LockProperty(Property):
2681    arg_types = {"this": True}
2682
2683
2684class LockingProperty(Property):
2685    arg_types = {
2686        "this": False,
2687        "kind": True,
2688        "for_or_in": False,
2689        "lock_type": True,
2690        "override": False,
2691    }
2692
2693
2694class LogProperty(Property):
2695    arg_types = {"no": True}
2696
2697
2698class MaterializedProperty(Property):
2699    arg_types = {"this": False}
2700
2701
2702class MergeBlockRatioProperty(Property):
2703    arg_types = {"this": False, "no": False, "default": False, "percent": False}
2704
2705
2706class NoPrimaryIndexProperty(Property):
2707    arg_types = {}
2708
2709
2710class OnProperty(Property):
2711    arg_types = {"this": True}
2712
2713
2714class OnCommitProperty(Property):
2715    arg_types = {"delete": False}
2716
2717
2718class PartitionedByProperty(Property):
2719    arg_types = {"this": True}
2720
2721
2722# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createtable.html
2723class PartitionBoundSpec(Expression):
2724    # this -> IN / MODULUS, expression -> REMAINDER, from_expressions -> FROM (...), to_expressions -> TO (...)
2725    arg_types = {
2726        "this": False,
2727        "expression": False,
2728        "from_expressions": False,
2729        "to_expressions": False,
2730    }
2731
2732
2733class PartitionedOfProperty(Property):
2734    # this -> parent_table (schema), expression -> FOR VALUES ... / DEFAULT
2735    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2736
2737
2738class RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty(Property):
2739    arg_types = {"this": True}
2740
2741
2742class ReturnsProperty(Property):
2743    arg_types = {"this": False, "is_table": False, "table": False, "null": False}
2744
2745
2746class StrictProperty(Property):
2747    arg_types = {}
2748
2749
2750class RowFormatProperty(Property):
2751    arg_types = {"this": True}
2752
2753
2754class RowFormatDelimitedProperty(Property):
2755    # https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/hive/languagemanual+dml
2756    arg_types = {
2757        "fields": False,
2758        "escaped": False,
2759        "collection_items": False,
2760        "map_keys": False,
2761        "lines": False,
2762        "null": False,
2763        "serde": False,
2764    }
2765
2766
2767class RowFormatSerdeProperty(Property):
2768    arg_types = {"this": True, "serde_properties": False}
2769
2770
2771# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.2/sql-ref-syntax-qry-select-transform.html
2772class QueryTransform(Expression):
2773    arg_types = {
2774        "expressions": True,
2775        "command_script": True,
2776        "schema": False,
2777        "row_format_before": False,
2778        "record_writer": False,
2779        "row_format_after": False,
2780        "record_reader": False,
2781    }
2782
2783
2784class SampleProperty(Property):
2785    arg_types = {"this": True}
2786
2787
2788class SchemaCommentProperty(Property):
2789    arg_types = {"this": True}
2790
2791
2792class SerdeProperties(Property):
2793    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "with": False}
2794
2795
2796class SetProperty(Property):
2797    arg_types = {"multi": True}
2798
2799
2800class SharingProperty(Property):
2801    arg_types = {"this": False}
2802
2803
2804class SetConfigProperty(Property):
2805    arg_types = {"this": True}
2806
2807
2808class SettingsProperty(Property):
2809    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2810
2811
2812class SortKeyProperty(Property):
2813    arg_types = {"this": True, "compound": False}
2814
2815
2816class SqlReadWriteProperty(Property):
2817    arg_types = {"this": True}
2818
2819
2820class SqlSecurityProperty(Property):
2821    arg_types = {"definer": True}
2822
2823
2824class StabilityProperty(Property):
2825    arg_types = {"this": True}
2826
2827
2828class TemporaryProperty(Property):
2829    arg_types = {"this": False}
2830
2831
2832class SecureProperty(Property):
2833    arg_types = {}
2834
2835
2836class TransformModelProperty(Property):
2837    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2838
2839
2840class TransientProperty(Property):
2841    arg_types = {"this": False}
2842
2843
2844class UnloggedProperty(Property):
2845    arg_types = {}
2846
2847
2848# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/statements/create-view-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
2849class ViewAttributeProperty(Property):
2850    arg_types = {"this": True}
2851
2852
2853class VolatileProperty(Property):
2854    arg_types = {"this": False}
2855
2856
2857class WithDataProperty(Property):
2858    arg_types = {"no": True, "statistics": False}
2859
2860
2861class WithJournalTableProperty(Property):
2862    arg_types = {"this": True}
2863
2864
2865class WithSchemaBindingProperty(Property):
2866    arg_types = {"this": True}
2867
2868
2869class WithSystemVersioningProperty(Property):
2870    arg_types = {
2871        "on": False,
2872        "this": False,
2873        "data_consistency": False,
2874        "retention_period": False,
2875        "with": True,
2876    }
2877
2878
2879class Properties(Expression):
2880    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2881
2882    NAME_TO_PROPERTY = {
2883        "ALGORITHM": AlgorithmProperty,
2884        "AUTO_INCREMENT": AutoIncrementProperty,
2885        "CHARACTER SET": CharacterSetProperty,
2886        "CLUSTERED_BY": ClusteredByProperty,
2887        "COLLATE": CollateProperty,
2888        "COMMENT": SchemaCommentProperty,
2889        "DEFINER": DefinerProperty,
2890        "DISTKEY": DistKeyProperty,
2891        "DISTSTYLE": DistStyleProperty,
2892        "ENGINE": EngineProperty,
2893        "EXECUTE AS": ExecuteAsProperty,
2894        "FORMAT": FileFormatProperty,
2895        "LANGUAGE": LanguageProperty,
2896        "LOCATION": LocationProperty,
2897        "LOCK": LockProperty,
2898        "PARTITIONED_BY": PartitionedByProperty,
2899        "RETURNS": ReturnsProperty,
2900        "ROW_FORMAT": RowFormatProperty,
2901        "SORTKEY": SortKeyProperty,
2902    }
2903
2904    PROPERTY_TO_NAME = {v: k for k, v in NAME_TO_PROPERTY.items()}
2905
2906    # CREATE property locations
2907    # Form: schema specified
2908    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2909    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2910    #     (b int) [POST_SCHEMA]
2911    #     with ([POST_WITH])
2912    #     index (b) [POST_INDEX]
2913    #
2914    # Form: alias selection
2915    #   create [POST_CREATE]
2916    #     table a [POST_NAME]
2917    #     as [POST_ALIAS] (select * from b) [POST_EXPRESSION]
2918    #     index (c) [POST_INDEX]
2919    class Location(AutoName):
2920        POST_CREATE = auto()
2921        POST_NAME = auto()
2922        POST_SCHEMA = auto()
2923        POST_WITH = auto()
2924        POST_ALIAS = auto()
2925        POST_EXPRESSION = auto()
2926        POST_INDEX = auto()
2927        UNSUPPORTED = auto()
2928
2929    @classmethod
2930    def from_dict(cls, properties_dict: t.Dict) -> Properties:
2931        expressions = []
2932        for key, value in properties_dict.items():
2933            property_cls = cls.NAME_TO_PROPERTY.get(key.upper())
2934            if property_cls:
2935                expressions.append(property_cls(this=convert(value)))
2936            else:
2937                expressions.append(Property(this=Literal.string(key), value=convert(value)))
2938
2939        return cls(expressions=expressions)
2940
2941
2942class Qualify(Expression):
2943    pass
2944
2945
2946class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
2947    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
2948
2949
2950# https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/ias?topic=procedures-return-statement-in-sql
2951class Return(Expression):
2952    pass
2953
2954
2955class Reference(Expression):
2956    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "options": False}
2957
2958
2959class Tuple(Expression):
2960    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
2961
2962    def isin(
2963        self,
2964        *expressions: t.Any,
2965        query: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
2966        unnest: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] | t.Collection[ExpOrStr] = None,
2967        copy: bool = True,
2968        **opts,
2969    ) -> In:
2970        return In(
2971            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
2972            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
2973            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
2974            unnest=(
2975                Unnest(
2976                    expressions=[
2977                        maybe_parse(t.cast(ExpOrStr, e), copy=copy, **opts)
2978                        for e in ensure_list(unnest)
2979                    ]
2980                )
2981                if unnest
2982                else None
2983            ),
2984        )
2985
2986
2987QUERY_MODIFIERS = {
2988    "match": False,
2989    "laterals": False,
2990    "joins": False,
2991    "connect": False,
2992    "pivots": False,
2993    "prewhere": False,
2994    "where": False,
2995    "group": False,
2996    "having": False,
2997    "qualify": False,
2998    "windows": False,
2999    "distribute": False,
3000    "sort": False,
3001    "cluster": False,
3002    "order": False,
3003    "limit": False,
3004    "offset": False,
3005    "locks": False,
3006    "sample": False,
3007    "settings": False,
3008    "format": False,
3009    "options": False,
3010}
3011
3012
3013# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/option-clause-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3014# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/hints-transact-sql-query?view=sql-server-ver16
3015class QueryOption(Expression):
3016    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3017
3018
3019# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/hints-transact-sql-table?view=sql-server-ver16
3020class WithTableHint(Expression):
3021    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
3022
3023
3024# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/index-hints.html
3025class IndexTableHint(Expression):
3026    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "target": False}
3027
3028
3029# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/at-before
3030class HistoricalData(Expression):
3031    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True}
3032
3033
3034class Table(Expression):
3035    arg_types = {
3036        "this": False,
3037        "alias": False,
3038        "db": False,
3039        "catalog": False,
3040        "laterals": False,
3041        "joins": False,
3042        "pivots": False,
3043        "hints": False,
3044        "system_time": False,
3045        "version": False,
3046        "format": False,
3047        "pattern": False,
3048        "ordinality": False,
3049        "when": False,
3050        "only": False,
3051        "partition": False,
3052        "changes": False,
3053        "rows_from": False,
3054    }
3055
3056    @property
3057    def name(self) -> str:
3058        if isinstance(self.this, Func):
3059            return ""
3060        return self.this.name
3061
3062    @property
3063    def db(self) -> str:
3064        return self.text("db")
3065
3066    @property
3067    def catalog(self) -> str:
3068        return self.text("catalog")
3069
3070    @property
3071    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3072        return []
3073
3074    @property
3075    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3076        return []
3077
3078    @property
3079    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3080        """Return the parts of a table in order catalog, db, table."""
3081        parts: t.List[Expression] = []
3082
3083        for arg in ("catalog", "db", "this"):
3084            part = self.args.get(arg)
3085
3086            if isinstance(part, Dot):
3087                parts.extend(part.flatten())
3088            elif isinstance(part, Expression):
3089                parts.append(part)
3090
3091        return parts
3092
3093    def to_column(self, copy: bool = True) -> Alias | Column | Dot:
3094        parts = self.parts
3095        col = column(*reversed(parts[0:4]), fields=parts[4:], copy=copy)  # type: ignore
3096        alias = self.args.get("alias")
3097        if alias:
3098            col = alias_(col, alias.this, copy=copy)
3099        return col
3100
3101
3102class SetOperation(Query):
3103    arg_types = {
3104        "with": False,
3105        "this": True,
3106        "expression": True,
3107        "distinct": False,
3108        "by_name": False,
3109        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3110    }
3111
3112    def select(
3113        self: S,
3114        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3115        append: bool = True,
3116        dialect: DialectType = None,
3117        copy: bool = True,
3118        **opts,
3119    ) -> S:
3120        this = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3121        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
3122        this.expression.unnest().select(
3123            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
3124        )
3125        return this
3126
3127    @property
3128    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3129        return self.this.unnest().named_selects
3130
3131    @property
3132    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3133        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
3134
3135    @property
3136    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3137        return self.this.unnest().selects
3138
3139    @property
3140    def left(self) -> Expression:
3141        return self.this
3142
3143    @property
3144    def right(self) -> Expression:
3145        return self.expression
3146
3147
3148class Union(SetOperation):
3149    pass
3150
3151
3152class Except(SetOperation):
3153    pass
3154
3155
3156class Intersect(SetOperation):
3157    pass
3158
3159
3160class Update(Expression):
3161    arg_types = {
3162        "with": False,
3163        "this": False,
3164        "expressions": True,
3165        "from": False,
3166        "where": False,
3167        "returning": False,
3168        "order": False,
3169        "limit": False,
3170    }
3171
3172
3173class Values(UDTF):
3174    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "alias": False}
3175
3176
3177class Var(Expression):
3178    pass
3179
3180
3181class Version(Expression):
3182    """
3183    Time travel, iceberg, bigquery etc
3184    https://trino.io/docs/current/connector/iceberg.html?highlight=snapshot#using-snapshots
3185    https://www.databricks.com/blog/2019/02/04/introducing-delta-time-travel-for-large-scale-data-lakes.html
3186    https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax#for_system_time_as_of
3187    https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/relational-databases/tables/querying-data-in-a-system-versioned-temporal-table?view=sql-server-ver16
3188    this is either TIMESTAMP or VERSION
3189    kind is ("AS OF", "BETWEEN")
3190    """
3191
3192    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": False}
3193
3194
3195class Schema(Expression):
3196    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
3197
3198
3199# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/select.html
3200# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/SELECT.html
3201class Lock(Expression):
3202    arg_types = {"update": True, "expressions": False, "wait": False}
3203
3204
3205class Select(Query):
3206    arg_types = {
3207        "with": False,
3208        "kind": False,
3209        "expressions": False,
3210        "hint": False,
3211        "distinct": False,
3212        "into": False,
3213        "from": False,
3214        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3215    }
3216
3217    def from_(
3218        self, expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
3219    ) -> Select:
3220        """
3221        Set the FROM expression.
3222
3223        Example:
3224            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
3225            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
3226
3227        Args:
3228            expression : the SQL code strings to parse.
3229                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3230                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
3231            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3232            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3233            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3234
3235        Returns:
3236            The modified Select expression.
3237        """
3238        return _apply_builder(
3239            expression=expression,
3240            instance=self,
3241            arg="from",
3242            into=From,
3243            prefix="FROM",
3244            dialect=dialect,
3245            copy=copy,
3246            **opts,
3247        )
3248
3249    def group_by(
3250        self,
3251        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3252        append: bool = True,
3253        dialect: DialectType = None,
3254        copy: bool = True,
3255        **opts,
3256    ) -> Select:
3257        """
3258        Set the GROUP BY expression.
3259
3260        Example:
3261            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
3262            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
3263
3264        Args:
3265            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3266                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3267                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
3268                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
3269            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3270                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
3271            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3272            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3273            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3274
3275        Returns:
3276            The modified Select expression.
3277        """
3278        if not expressions:
3279            return self if not copy else self.copy()
3280
3281        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3282            *expressions,
3283            instance=self,
3284            arg="group",
3285            append=append,
3286            copy=copy,
3287            prefix="GROUP BY",
3288            into=Group,
3289            dialect=dialect,
3290            **opts,
3291        )
3292
3293    def sort_by(
3294        self,
3295        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3296        append: bool = True,
3297        dialect: DialectType = None,
3298        copy: bool = True,
3299        **opts,
3300    ) -> Select:
3301        """
3302        Set the SORT BY expression.
3303
3304        Example:
3305            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
3306            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
3307
3308        Args:
3309            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3310                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3311                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
3312            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3313                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
3314            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3315            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3316            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3317
3318        Returns:
3319            The modified Select expression.
3320        """
3321        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3322            *expressions,
3323            instance=self,
3324            arg="sort",
3325            append=append,
3326            copy=copy,
3327            prefix="SORT BY",
3328            into=Sort,
3329            dialect=dialect,
3330            **opts,
3331        )
3332
3333    def cluster_by(
3334        self,
3335        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3336        append: bool = True,
3337        dialect: DialectType = None,
3338        copy: bool = True,
3339        **opts,
3340    ) -> Select:
3341        """
3342        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
3343
3344        Example:
3345            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
3346            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x DESC'
3347
3348        Args:
3349            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3350                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
3351                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
3352            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3353                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
3354            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
3355            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3356            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3357
3358        Returns:
3359            The modified Select expression.
3360        """
3361        return _apply_child_list_builder(
3362            *expressions,
3363            instance=self,
3364            arg="cluster",
3365            append=append,
3366            copy=copy,
3367            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
3368            into=Cluster,
3369            dialect=dialect,
3370            **opts,
3371        )
3372
3373    def select(
3374        self,
3375        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3376        append: bool = True,
3377        dialect: DialectType = None,
3378        copy: bool = True,
3379        **opts,
3380    ) -> Select:
3381        return _apply_list_builder(
3382            *expressions,
3383            instance=self,
3384            arg="expressions",
3385            append=append,
3386            dialect=dialect,
3387            into=Expression,
3388            copy=copy,
3389            **opts,
3390        )
3391
3392    def lateral(
3393        self,
3394        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3395        append: bool = True,
3396        dialect: DialectType = None,
3397        copy: bool = True,
3398        **opts,
3399    ) -> Select:
3400        """
3401        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
3402
3403        Example:
3404            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
3405            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
3406
3407        Args:
3408            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3409                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3410            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3411                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3412            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3413            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3414            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3415
3416        Returns:
3417            The modified Select expression.
3418        """
3419        return _apply_list_builder(
3420            *expressions,
3421            instance=self,
3422            arg="laterals",
3423            append=append,
3424            into=Lateral,
3425            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
3426            dialect=dialect,
3427            copy=copy,
3428            **opts,
3429        )
3430
3431    def join(
3432        self,
3433        expression: ExpOrStr,
3434        on: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
3435        using: t.Optional[ExpOrStr | t.Collection[ExpOrStr]] = None,
3436        append: bool = True,
3437        join_type: t.Optional[str] = None,
3438        join_alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
3439        dialect: DialectType = None,
3440        copy: bool = True,
3441        **opts,
3442    ) -> Select:
3443        """
3444        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
3445
3446        Example:
3447            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
3448            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3449
3450            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
3451            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
3452
3453            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
3454
3455            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
3456            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
3457
3458        Args:
3459            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
3460                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3461            on: optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
3462                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3463            using: optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
3464                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3465            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
3466                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
3467            join_type: if set, alter the parsed join type.
3468            join_alias: an optional alias for the joined source.
3469            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3470            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3471            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3472
3473        Returns:
3474            Select: the modified expression.
3475        """
3476        parse_args: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
3477
3478        try:
3479            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
3480        except ParseError:
3481            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expression), **parse_args)
3482
3483        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
3484
3485        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
3486            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
3487
3488        if join_type:
3489            method: t.Optional[Token]
3490            side: t.Optional[Token]
3491            kind: t.Optional[Token]
3492
3493            method, side, kind = maybe_parse(join_type, into="JOIN_TYPE", **parse_args)  # type: ignore
3494
3495            if method:
3496                join.set("method", method.text)
3497            if side:
3498                join.set("side", side.text)
3499            if kind:
3500                join.set("kind", kind.text)
3501
3502        if on:
3503            on = and_(*ensure_list(on), dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
3504            join.set("on", on)
3505
3506        if using:
3507            join = _apply_list_builder(
3508                *ensure_list(using),
3509                instance=join,
3510                arg="using",
3511                append=append,
3512                copy=copy,
3513                into=Identifier,
3514                **opts,
3515            )
3516
3517        if join_alias:
3518            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
3519
3520        return _apply_list_builder(
3521            join,
3522            instance=self,
3523            arg="joins",
3524            append=append,
3525            copy=copy,
3526            **opts,
3527        )
3528
3529    def where(
3530        self,
3531        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3532        append: bool = True,
3533        dialect: DialectType = None,
3534        copy: bool = True,
3535        **opts,
3536    ) -> Select:
3537        """
3538        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
3539
3540        Example:
3541            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
3542            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
3543
3544        Args:
3545            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3546                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3547                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3548            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3549                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3550            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3551            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3552            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3553
3554        Returns:
3555            Select: the modified expression.
3556        """
3557        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3558            *expressions,
3559            instance=self,
3560            arg="where",
3561            append=append,
3562            into=Where,
3563            dialect=dialect,
3564            copy=copy,
3565            **opts,
3566        )
3567
3568    def having(
3569        self,
3570        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3571        append: bool = True,
3572        dialect: DialectType = None,
3573        copy: bool = True,
3574        **opts,
3575    ) -> Select:
3576        """
3577        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
3578
3579        Example:
3580            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
3581            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
3582
3583        Args:
3584            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
3585                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3586                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
3587            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
3588                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
3589            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
3590            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3591            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
3592
3593        Returns:
3594            The modified Select expression.
3595        """
3596        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3597            *expressions,
3598            instance=self,
3599            arg="having",
3600            append=append,
3601            into=Having,
3602            dialect=dialect,
3603            copy=copy,
3604            **opts,
3605        )
3606
3607    def window(
3608        self,
3609        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3610        append: bool = True,
3611        dialect: DialectType = None,
3612        copy: bool = True,
3613        **opts,
3614    ) -> Select:
3615        return _apply_list_builder(
3616            *expressions,
3617            instance=self,
3618            arg="windows",
3619            append=append,
3620            into=Window,
3621            dialect=dialect,
3622            copy=copy,
3623            **opts,
3624        )
3625
3626    def qualify(
3627        self,
3628        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3629        append: bool = True,
3630        dialect: DialectType = None,
3631        copy: bool = True,
3632        **opts,
3633    ) -> Select:
3634        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
3635            *expressions,
3636            instance=self,
3637            arg="qualify",
3638            append=append,
3639            into=Qualify,
3640            dialect=dialect,
3641            copy=copy,
3642            **opts,
3643        )
3644
3645    def distinct(
3646        self, *ons: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], distinct: bool = True, copy: bool = True
3647    ) -> Select:
3648        """
3649        Set the OFFSET expression.
3650
3651        Example:
3652            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
3653            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
3654
3655        Args:
3656            ons: the expressions to distinct on
3657            distinct: whether the Select should be distinct
3658            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3659
3660        Returns:
3661            Select: the modified expression.
3662        """
3663        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3664        on = Tuple(expressions=[maybe_parse(on, copy=copy) for on in ons if on]) if ons else None
3665        instance.set("distinct", Distinct(on=on) if distinct else None)
3666        return instance
3667
3668    def ctas(
3669        self,
3670        table: ExpOrStr,
3671        properties: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3672        dialect: DialectType = None,
3673        copy: bool = True,
3674        **opts,
3675    ) -> Create:
3676        """
3677        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
3678
3679        Example:
3680            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
3681            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
3682
3683        Args:
3684            table: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
3685                If another `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3686            properties: an optional mapping of table properties
3687            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input table.
3688            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3689            opts: other options to use to parse the input table.
3690
3691        Returns:
3692            The new Create expression.
3693        """
3694        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3695        table_expression = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect, **opts)
3696
3697        properties_expression = None
3698        if properties:
3699            properties_expression = Properties.from_dict(properties)
3700
3701        return Create(
3702            this=table_expression,
3703            kind="TABLE",
3704            expression=instance,
3705            properties=properties_expression,
3706        )
3707
3708    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3709        """
3710        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
3711
3712        Examples:
3713            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
3714            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
3715
3716            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
3717            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
3718
3719        Args:
3720            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
3721            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3722
3723        Returns:
3724            The modified expression.
3725        """
3726        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3727        inst.set("locks", [Lock(update=update)])
3728
3729        return inst
3730
3731    def hint(self, *hints: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
3732        """
3733        Set hints for this expression.
3734
3735        Examples:
3736            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").hint("BROADCAST(y)").sql(dialect="spark")
3737            'SELECT /*+ BROADCAST(y) */ x FROM tbl'
3738
3739        Args:
3740            hints: The SQL code strings to parse as the hints.
3741                If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
3742            dialect: The dialect used to parse the hints.
3743            copy: If `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
3744
3745        Returns:
3746            The modified expression.
3747        """
3748        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3749        inst.set(
3750            "hint", Hint(expressions=[maybe_parse(h, copy=copy, dialect=dialect) for h in hints])
3751        )
3752
3753        return inst
3754
3755    @property
3756    def named_selects(self) -> t.List[str]:
3757        return [e.output_name for e in self.expressions if e.alias_or_name]
3758
3759    @property
3760    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3761        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
3762
3763    @property
3764    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
3765        return self.expressions
3766
3767
3768UNWRAPPED_QUERIES = (Select, SetOperation)
3769
3770
3771class Subquery(DerivedTable, Query):
3772    arg_types = {
3773        "this": True,
3774        "alias": False,
3775        "with": False,
3776        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
3777    }
3778
3779    def unnest(self):
3780        """Returns the first non subquery."""
3781        expression = self
3782        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
3783            expression = expression.this
3784        return expression
3785
3786    def unwrap(self) -> Subquery:
3787        expression = self
3788        while expression.same_parent and expression.is_wrapper:
3789            expression = t.cast(Subquery, expression.parent)
3790        return expression
3791
3792    def select(
3793        self,
3794        *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr],
3795        append: bool = True,
3796        dialect: DialectType = None,
3797        copy: bool = True,
3798        **opts,
3799    ) -> Subquery:
3800        this = maybe_copy(self, copy)
3801        this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
3802        return this
3803
3804    @property
3805    def is_wrapper(self) -> bool:
3806        """
3807        Whether this Subquery acts as a simple wrapper around another expression.
3808
3809        SELECT * FROM (((SELECT * FROM t)))
3810                      ^
3811                      This corresponds to a "wrapper" Subquery node
3812        """
3813        return all(v is None for k, v in self.args.items() if k != "this")
3814
3815    @property
3816    def is_star(self) -> bool:
3817        return self.this.is_star
3818
3819    @property
3820    def output_name(self) -> str:
3821        return self.alias
3822
3823
3824class TableSample(Expression):
3825    arg_types = {
3826        "this": False,
3827        "expressions": False,
3828        "method": False,
3829        "bucket_numerator": False,
3830        "bucket_denominator": False,
3831        "bucket_field": False,
3832        "percent": False,
3833        "rows": False,
3834        "size": False,
3835        "seed": False,
3836    }
3837
3838
3839class Tag(Expression):
3840    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
3841
3842    arg_types = {
3843        "this": False,
3844        "prefix": False,
3845        "postfix": False,
3846    }
3847
3848
3849# Represents both the standard SQL PIVOT operator and DuckDB's "simplified" PIVOT syntax
3850# https://duckdb.org/docs/sql/statements/pivot
3851class Pivot(Expression):
3852    arg_types = {
3853        "this": False,
3854        "alias": False,
3855        "expressions": False,
3856        "field": False,
3857        "unpivot": False,
3858        "using": False,
3859        "group": False,
3860        "columns": False,
3861        "include_nulls": False,
3862        "default_on_null": False,
3863    }
3864
3865    @property
3866    def unpivot(self) -> bool:
3867        return bool(self.args.get("unpivot"))
3868
3869
3870class Window(Condition):
3871    arg_types = {
3872        "this": True,
3873        "partition_by": False,
3874        "order": False,
3875        "spec": False,
3876        "alias": False,
3877        "over": False,
3878        "first": False,
3879    }
3880
3881
3882class WindowSpec(Expression):
3883    arg_types = {
3884        "kind": False,
3885        "start": False,
3886        "start_side": False,
3887        "end": False,
3888        "end_side": False,
3889    }
3890
3891
3892class PreWhere(Expression):
3893    pass
3894
3895
3896class Where(Expression):
3897    pass
3898
3899
3900class Star(Expression):
3901    arg_types = {"except": False, "replace": False, "rename": False}
3902
3903    @property
3904    def name(self) -> str:
3905        return "*"
3906
3907    @property
3908    def output_name(self) -> str:
3909        return self.name
3910
3911
3912class Parameter(Condition):
3913    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3914
3915
3916class SessionParameter(Condition):
3917    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
3918
3919
3920class Placeholder(Condition):
3921    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False}
3922
3923    @property
3924    def name(self) -> str:
3925        return self.this or "?"
3926
3927
3928class Null(Condition):
3929    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
3930
3931    @property
3932    def name(self) -> str:
3933        return "NULL"
3934
3935    def to_py(self) -> Lit[None]:
3936        return None
3937
3938
3939class Boolean(Condition):
3940    def to_py(self) -> bool:
3941        return self.this
3942
3943
3944class DataTypeParam(Expression):
3945    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
3946
3947    @property
3948    def name(self) -> str:
3949        return self.this.name
3950
3951
3952class DataType(Expression):
3953    arg_types = {
3954        "this": True,
3955        "expressions": False,
3956        "nested": False,
3957        "values": False,
3958        "prefix": False,
3959        "kind": False,
3960    }
3961
3962    class Type(AutoName):
3963        ARRAY = auto()
3964        AGGREGATEFUNCTION = auto()
3965        SIMPLEAGGREGATEFUNCTION = auto()
3966        BIGDECIMAL = auto()
3967        BIGINT = auto()
3968        BIGSERIAL = auto()
3969        BINARY = auto()
3970        BIT = auto()
3971        BOOLEAN = auto()
3972        BPCHAR = auto()
3973        CHAR = auto()
3974        DATE = auto()
3975        DATE32 = auto()
3976        DATEMULTIRANGE = auto()
3977        DATERANGE = auto()
3978        DATETIME = auto()
3979        DATETIME64 = auto()
3980        DECIMAL = auto()
3981        DOUBLE = auto()
3982        ENUM = auto()
3983        ENUM8 = auto()
3984        ENUM16 = auto()
3985        FIXEDSTRING = auto()
3986        FLOAT = auto()
3987        GEOGRAPHY = auto()
3988        GEOMETRY = auto()
3989        HLLSKETCH = auto()
3990        HSTORE = auto()
3991        IMAGE = auto()
3992        INET = auto()
3993        INT = auto()
3994        INT128 = auto()
3995        INT256 = auto()
3996        INT4MULTIRANGE = auto()
3997        INT4RANGE = auto()
3998        INT8MULTIRANGE = auto()
3999        INT8RANGE = auto()
4000        INTERVAL = auto()
4001        IPADDRESS = auto()
4002        IPPREFIX = auto()
4003        IPV4 = auto()
4004        IPV6 = auto()
4005        JSON = auto()
4006        JSONB = auto()
4007        LIST = auto()
4008        LONGBLOB = auto()
4009        LONGTEXT = auto()
4010        LOWCARDINALITY = auto()
4011        MAP = auto()
4012        MEDIUMBLOB = auto()
4013        MEDIUMINT = auto()
4014        MEDIUMTEXT = auto()
4015        MONEY = auto()
4016        NAME = auto()
4017        NCHAR = auto()
4018        NESTED = auto()
4019        NULL = auto()
4020        NULLABLE = auto()
4021        NUMMULTIRANGE = auto()
4022        NUMRANGE = auto()
4023        NVARCHAR = auto()
4024        OBJECT = auto()
4025        ROWVERSION = auto()
4026        SERIAL = auto()
4027        SET = auto()
4028        SMALLINT = auto()
4029        SMALLMONEY = auto()
4030        SMALLSERIAL = auto()
4031        STRUCT = auto()
4032        SUPER = auto()
4033        TEXT = auto()
4034        TINYBLOB = auto()
4035        TINYTEXT = auto()
4036        TIME = auto()
4037        TIMETZ = auto()
4038        TIMESTAMP = auto()
4039        TIMESTAMPNTZ = auto()
4040        TIMESTAMPLTZ = auto()
4041        TIMESTAMPTZ = auto()
4042        TIMESTAMP_S = auto()
4043        TIMESTAMP_MS = auto()
4044        TIMESTAMP_NS = auto()
4045        TINYINT = auto()
4046        TSMULTIRANGE = auto()
4047        TSRANGE = auto()
4048        TSTZMULTIRANGE = auto()
4049        TSTZRANGE = auto()
4050        UBIGINT = auto()
4051        UINT = auto()
4052        UINT128 = auto()
4053        UINT256 = auto()
4054        UMEDIUMINT = auto()
4055        UDECIMAL = auto()
4056        UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = auto()
4057        UNKNOWN = auto()  # Sentinel value, useful for type annotation
4058        USERDEFINED = "USER-DEFINED"
4059        USMALLINT = auto()
4060        UTINYINT = auto()
4061        UUID = auto()
4062        VARBINARY = auto()
4063        VARCHAR = auto()
4064        VARIANT = auto()
4065        VECTOR = auto()
4066        XML = auto()
4067        YEAR = auto()
4068        TDIGEST = auto()
4069
4070    STRUCT_TYPES = {
4071        Type.NESTED,
4072        Type.OBJECT,
4073        Type.STRUCT,
4074    }
4075
4076    NESTED_TYPES = {
4077        *STRUCT_TYPES,
4078        Type.ARRAY,
4079        Type.MAP,
4080    }
4081
4082    TEXT_TYPES = {
4083        Type.CHAR,
4084        Type.NCHAR,
4085        Type.NVARCHAR,
4086        Type.TEXT,
4087        Type.VARCHAR,
4088        Type.NAME,
4089    }
4090
4091    SIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES = {
4092        Type.BIGINT,
4093        Type.INT,
4094        Type.INT128,
4095        Type.INT256,
4096        Type.MEDIUMINT,
4097        Type.SMALLINT,
4098        Type.TINYINT,
4099    }
4100
4101    UNSIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES = {
4102        Type.UBIGINT,
4103        Type.UINT,
4104        Type.UINT128,
4105        Type.UINT256,
4106        Type.UMEDIUMINT,
4107        Type.USMALLINT,
4108        Type.UTINYINT,
4109    }
4110
4111    INTEGER_TYPES = {
4112        *SIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES,
4113        *UNSIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES,
4114        Type.BIT,
4115    }
4116
4117    FLOAT_TYPES = {
4118        Type.DOUBLE,
4119        Type.FLOAT,
4120    }
4121
4122    REAL_TYPES = {
4123        *FLOAT_TYPES,
4124        Type.BIGDECIMAL,
4125        Type.DECIMAL,
4126        Type.MONEY,
4127        Type.SMALLMONEY,
4128        Type.UDECIMAL,
4129    }
4130
4131    NUMERIC_TYPES = {
4132        *INTEGER_TYPES,
4133        *REAL_TYPES,
4134    }
4135
4136    TEMPORAL_TYPES = {
4137        Type.DATE,
4138        Type.DATE32,
4139        Type.DATETIME,
4140        Type.DATETIME64,
4141        Type.TIME,
4142        Type.TIMESTAMP,
4143        Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ,
4144        Type.TIMESTAMPLTZ,
4145        Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
4146        Type.TIMESTAMP_MS,
4147        Type.TIMESTAMP_NS,
4148        Type.TIMESTAMP_S,
4149        Type.TIMETZ,
4150    }
4151
4152    @classmethod
4153    def build(
4154        cls,
4155        dtype: DATA_TYPE,
4156        dialect: DialectType = None,
4157        udt: bool = False,
4158        copy: bool = True,
4159        **kwargs,
4160    ) -> DataType:
4161        """
4162        Constructs a DataType object.
4163
4164        Args:
4165            dtype: the data type of interest.
4166            dialect: the dialect to use for parsing `dtype`, in case it's a string.
4167            udt: when set to True, `dtype` will be used as-is if it can't be parsed into a
4168                DataType, thus creating a user-defined type.
4169            copy: whether to copy the data type.
4170            kwargs: additional arguments to pass in the constructor of DataType.
4171
4172        Returns:
4173            The constructed DataType object.
4174        """
4175        from sqlglot import parse_one
4176
4177        if isinstance(dtype, str):
4178            if dtype.upper() == "UNKNOWN":
4179                return DataType(this=DataType.Type.UNKNOWN, **kwargs)
4180
4181            try:
4182                data_type_exp = parse_one(
4183                    dtype, read=dialect, into=DataType, error_level=ErrorLevel.IGNORE
4184                )
4185            except ParseError:
4186                if udt:
4187                    return DataType(this=DataType.Type.USERDEFINED, kind=dtype, **kwargs)
4188                raise
4189        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType.Type):
4190            data_type_exp = DataType(this=dtype)
4191        elif isinstance(dtype, DataType):
4192            return maybe_copy(dtype, copy)
4193        else:
4194            raise ValueError(f"Invalid data type: {type(dtype)}. Expected str or DataType.Type")
4195
4196        return DataType(**{**data_type_exp.args, **kwargs})
4197
4198    def is_type(self, *dtypes: DATA_TYPE) -> bool:
4199        """
4200        Checks whether this DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types or precision
4201        will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g. array<int> != array<float>.
4202
4203        Args:
4204            dtypes: the data types to compare this DataType to.
4205
4206        Returns:
4207            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this DataType.
4208        """
4209        for dtype in dtypes:
4210            other = DataType.build(dtype, copy=False, udt=True)
4211
4212            if (
4213                other.expressions
4214                or self.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
4215                or other.this == DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
4216            ):
4217                matches = self == other
4218            else:
4219                matches = self.this == other.this
4220
4221            if matches:
4222                return True
4223        return False
4224
4225
4226DATA_TYPE = t.Union[str, DataType, DataType.Type]
4227
4228
4229# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-pseudo.html
4230class PseudoType(DataType):
4231    arg_types = {"this": True}
4232
4233
4234# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/datatype-oid.html
4235class ObjectIdentifier(DataType):
4236    arg_types = {"this": True}
4237
4238
4239# WHERE x <OP> EXISTS|ALL|ANY|SOME(SELECT ...)
4240class SubqueryPredicate(Predicate):
4241    pass
4242
4243
4244class All(SubqueryPredicate):
4245    pass
4246
4247
4248class Any(SubqueryPredicate):
4249    pass
4250
4251
4252class Exists(SubqueryPredicate):
4253    pass
4254
4255
4256# Commands to interact with the databases or engines. For most of the command
4257# expressions we parse whatever comes after the command's name as a string.
4258class Command(Expression):
4259    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4260
4261
4262class Transaction(Expression):
4263    arg_types = {"this": False, "modes": False, "mark": False}
4264
4265
4266class Commit(Expression):
4267    arg_types = {"chain": False, "this": False, "durability": False}
4268
4269
4270class Rollback(Expression):
4271    arg_types = {"savepoint": False, "this": False}
4272
4273
4274class AlterTable(Expression):
4275    arg_types = {
4276        "this": True,
4277        "actions": True,
4278        "exists": False,
4279        "only": False,
4280        "options": False,
4281        "cluster": False,
4282    }
4283
4284
4285class AddConstraint(Expression):
4286    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4287
4288
4289class DropPartition(Expression):
4290    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
4291
4292
4293# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/statements/alter/partition#replace-partition
4294class ReplacePartition(Expression):
4295    arg_types = {"expression": True, "source": True}
4296
4297
4298# Binary expressions like (ADD a b)
4299class Binary(Condition):
4300    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4301
4302    @property
4303    def left(self) -> Expression:
4304        return self.this
4305
4306    @property
4307    def right(self) -> Expression:
4308        return self.expression
4309
4310
4311class Add(Binary):
4312    pass
4313
4314
4315class Connector(Binary):
4316    pass
4317
4318
4319class And(Connector):
4320    pass
4321
4322
4323class Or(Connector):
4324    pass
4325
4326
4327class BitwiseAnd(Binary):
4328    pass
4329
4330
4331class BitwiseLeftShift(Binary):
4332    pass
4333
4334
4335class BitwiseOr(Binary):
4336    pass
4337
4338
4339class BitwiseRightShift(Binary):
4340    pass
4341
4342
4343class BitwiseXor(Binary):
4344    pass
4345
4346
4347class Div(Binary):
4348    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "typed": False, "safe": False}
4349
4350
4351class Overlaps(Binary):
4352    pass
4353
4354
4355class Dot(Binary):
4356    @property
4357    def is_star(self) -> bool:
4358        return self.expression.is_star
4359
4360    @property
4361    def name(self) -> str:
4362        return self.expression.name
4363
4364    @property
4365    def output_name(self) -> str:
4366        return self.name
4367
4368    @classmethod
4369    def build(self, expressions: t.Sequence[Expression]) -> Dot:
4370        """Build a Dot object with a sequence of expressions."""
4371        if len(expressions) < 2:
4372            raise ValueError("Dot requires >= 2 expressions.")
4373
4374        return t.cast(Dot, reduce(lambda x, y: Dot(this=x, expression=y), expressions))
4375
4376    @property
4377    def parts(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
4378        """Return the parts of a table / column in order catalog, db, table."""
4379        this, *parts = self.flatten()
4380
4381        parts.reverse()
4382
4383        for arg in COLUMN_PARTS:
4384            part = this.args.get(arg)
4385
4386            if isinstance(part, Expression):
4387                parts.append(part)
4388
4389        parts.reverse()
4390        return parts
4391
4392
4393class DPipe(Binary):
4394    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "safe": False}
4395
4396
4397class EQ(Binary, Predicate):
4398    pass
4399
4400
4401class NullSafeEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4402    pass
4403
4404
4405class NullSafeNEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4406    pass
4407
4408
4409# Represents e.g. := in DuckDB which is mostly used for setting parameters
4410class PropertyEQ(Binary):
4411    pass
4412
4413
4414class Distance(Binary):
4415    pass
4416
4417
4418class Escape(Binary):
4419    pass
4420
4421
4422class Glob(Binary, Predicate):
4423    pass
4424
4425
4426class GT(Binary, Predicate):
4427    pass
4428
4429
4430class GTE(Binary, Predicate):
4431    pass
4432
4433
4434class ILike(Binary, Predicate):
4435    pass
4436
4437
4438class ILikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
4439    pass
4440
4441
4442class IntDiv(Binary):
4443    pass
4444
4445
4446class Is(Binary, Predicate):
4447    pass
4448
4449
4450class Kwarg(Binary):
4451    """Kwarg in special functions like func(kwarg => y)."""
4452
4453
4454class Like(Binary, Predicate):
4455    pass
4456
4457
4458class LikeAny(Binary, Predicate):
4459    pass
4460
4461
4462class LT(Binary, Predicate):
4463    pass
4464
4465
4466class LTE(Binary, Predicate):
4467    pass
4468
4469
4470class Mod(Binary):
4471    pass
4472
4473
4474class Mul(Binary):
4475    pass
4476
4477
4478class NEQ(Binary, Predicate):
4479    pass
4480
4481
4482# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/ddl-schemas.html#DDL-SCHEMAS-PATH
4483class Operator(Binary):
4484    arg_types = {"this": True, "operator": True, "expression": True}
4485
4486
4487class SimilarTo(Binary, Predicate):
4488    pass
4489
4490
4491class Slice(Binary):
4492    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False}
4493
4494
4495class Sub(Binary):
4496    pass
4497
4498
4499# Unary Expressions
4500# (NOT a)
4501class Unary(Condition):
4502    pass
4503
4504
4505class BitwiseNot(Unary):
4506    pass
4507
4508
4509class Not(Unary):
4510    pass
4511
4512
4513class Paren(Unary):
4514    @property
4515    def output_name(self) -> str:
4516        return self.this.name
4517
4518
4519class Neg(Unary):
4520    def to_py(self) -> int | Decimal:
4521        if self.is_number:
4522            return self.this.to_py() * -1
4523        return super().to_py()
4524
4525
4526class Alias(Expression):
4527    arg_types = {"this": True, "alias": False}
4528
4529    @property
4530    def output_name(self) -> str:
4531        return self.alias
4532
4533
4534# BigQuery requires the UNPIVOT column list aliases to be either strings or ints, but
4535# other dialects require identifiers. This enables us to transpile between them easily.
4536class PivotAlias(Alias):
4537    pass
4538
4539
4540# Represents Snowflake's ANY [ ORDER BY ... ] syntax
4541# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/constructs/pivot
4542class PivotAny(Expression):
4543    arg_types = {"this": False}
4544
4545
4546class Aliases(Expression):
4547    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
4548
4549    @property
4550    def aliases(self):
4551        return self.expressions
4552
4553
4554# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/query-super.html
4555class AtIndex(Expression):
4556    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4557
4558
4559class AtTimeZone(Expression):
4560    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4561
4562
4563class FromTimeZone(Expression):
4564    arg_types = {"this": True, "zone": True}
4565
4566
4567class Between(Predicate):
4568    arg_types = {"this": True, "low": True, "high": True}
4569
4570
4571class Bracket(Condition):
4572    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/operators#array_subscript_operator
4573    arg_types = {
4574        "this": True,
4575        "expressions": True,
4576        "offset": False,
4577        "safe": False,
4578        "returns_list_for_maps": False,
4579    }
4580
4581    @property
4582    def output_name(self) -> str:
4583        if len(self.expressions) == 1:
4584            return self.expressions[0].output_name
4585
4586        return super().output_name
4587
4588
4589class Distinct(Expression):
4590    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "on": False}
4591
4592
4593class In(Predicate):
4594    arg_types = {
4595        "this": True,
4596        "expressions": False,
4597        "query": False,
4598        "unnest": False,
4599        "field": False,
4600        "is_global": False,
4601    }
4602
4603
4604# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/procedural-language#for-in
4605class ForIn(Expression):
4606    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4607
4608
4609class TimeUnit(Expression):
4610    """Automatically converts unit arg into a var."""
4611
4612    arg_types = {"unit": False}
4613
4614    UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME = {
4615        "D": "DAY",
4616        "H": "HOUR",
4617        "M": "MINUTE",
4618        "MS": "MILLISECOND",
4619        "NS": "NANOSECOND",
4620        "Q": "QUARTER",
4621        "S": "SECOND",
4622        "US": "MICROSECOND",
4623        "W": "WEEK",
4624        "Y": "YEAR",
4625    }
4626
4627    VAR_LIKE = (Column, Literal, Var)
4628
4629    def __init__(self, **args):
4630        unit = args.get("unit")
4631        if isinstance(unit, self.VAR_LIKE):
4632            args["unit"] = Var(
4633                this=(self.UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME.get(unit.name) or unit.name).upper()
4634            )
4635        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
4636            unit.set("this", Var(this=unit.this.name.upper()))
4637
4638        super().__init__(**args)
4639
4640    @property
4641    def unit(self) -> t.Optional[Var | IntervalSpan]:
4642        return self.args.get("unit")
4643
4644
4645class IntervalOp(TimeUnit):
4646    arg_types = {"unit": True, "expression": True}
4647
4648    def interval(self):
4649        return Interval(
4650            this=self.expression.copy(),
4651            unit=self.unit.copy(),
4652        )
4653
4654
4655# https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-basics/oracle-interval/
4656# https://trino.io/docs/current/language/types.html#interval-day-to-second
4657# https://docs.databricks.com/en/sql/language-manual/data-types/interval-type.html
4658class IntervalSpan(DataType):
4659    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4660
4661
4662class Interval(TimeUnit):
4663    arg_types = {"this": False, "unit": False}
4664
4665
4666class IgnoreNulls(Expression):
4667    pass
4668
4669
4670class RespectNulls(Expression):
4671    pass
4672
4673
4674# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/aggregate-function-calls#max_min_clause
4675class HavingMax(Expression):
4676    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "max": True}
4677
4678
4679# Functions
4680class Func(Condition):
4681    """
4682    The base class for all function expressions.
4683
4684    Attributes:
4685        is_var_len_args (bool): if set to True the last argument defined in arg_types will be
4686            treated as a variable length argument and the argument's value will be stored as a list.
4687        _sql_names (list): the SQL name (1st item in the list) and aliases (subsequent items) for this
4688            function expression. These values are used to map this node to a name during parsing as
4689            well as to provide the function's name during SQL string generation. By default the SQL
4690            name is set to the expression's class name transformed to snake case.
4691    """
4692
4693    is_var_len_args = False
4694
4695    @classmethod
4696    def from_arg_list(cls, args):
4697        if cls.is_var_len_args:
4698            all_arg_keys = list(cls.arg_types)
4699            # If this function supports variable length argument treat the last argument as such.
4700            non_var_len_arg_keys = all_arg_keys[:-1] if cls.is_var_len_args else all_arg_keys
4701            num_non_var = len(non_var_len_arg_keys)
4702
4703            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, non_var_len_arg_keys)}
4704            args_dict[all_arg_keys[-1]] = args[num_non_var:]
4705        else:
4706            args_dict = {arg_key: arg for arg, arg_key in zip(args, cls.arg_types)}
4707
4708        return cls(**args_dict)
4709
4710    @classmethod
4711    def sql_names(cls):
4712        if cls is Func:
4713            raise NotImplementedError(
4714                "SQL name is only supported by concrete function implementations"
4715            )
4716        if "_sql_names" not in cls.__dict__:
4717            cls._sql_names = [camel_to_snake_case(cls.__name__)]
4718        return cls._sql_names
4719
4720    @classmethod
4721    def sql_name(cls):
4722        return cls.sql_names()[0]
4723
4724    @classmethod
4725    def default_parser_mappings(cls):
4726        return {name: cls.from_arg_list for name in cls.sql_names()}
4727
4728
4729class AggFunc(Func):
4730    pass
4731
4732
4733class ParameterizedAgg(AggFunc):
4734    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True}
4735
4736
4737class Abs(Func):
4738    pass
4739
4740
4741class ArgMax(AggFunc):
4742    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "count": False}
4743    _sql_names = ["ARG_MAX", "ARGMAX", "MAX_BY"]
4744
4745
4746class ArgMin(AggFunc):
4747    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "count": False}
4748    _sql_names = ["ARG_MIN", "ARGMIN", "MIN_BY"]
4749
4750
4751class ApproxTopK(AggFunc):
4752    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "counters": False}
4753
4754
4755class Flatten(Func):
4756    pass
4757
4758
4759# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#transform
4760class Transform(Func):
4761    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4762
4763
4764class Anonymous(Func):
4765    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4766    is_var_len_args = True
4767
4768    @property
4769    def name(self) -> str:
4770        return self.this if isinstance(self.this, str) else self.this.name
4771
4772
4773class AnonymousAggFunc(AggFunc):
4774    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4775    is_var_len_args = True
4776
4777
4778# https://clickhouse.com/docs/en/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/combinators
4779class CombinedAggFunc(AnonymousAggFunc):
4780    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "parts": True}
4781
4782
4783class CombinedParameterizedAgg(ParameterizedAgg):
4784    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "params": True, "parts": True}
4785
4786
4787# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/hll
4788# https://docs.aws.amazon.com/redshift/latest/dg/r_HLL_function.html
4789class Hll(AggFunc):
4790    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4791    is_var_len_args = True
4792
4793
4794class ApproxDistinct(AggFunc):
4795    arg_types = {"this": True, "accuracy": False}
4796    _sql_names = ["APPROX_DISTINCT", "APPROX_COUNT_DISTINCT"]
4797
4798
4799class Array(Func):
4800    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "bracket_notation": False}
4801    is_var_len_args = True
4802
4803
4804# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_array
4805class ToArray(Func):
4806    pass
4807
4808
4809# https://materialize.com/docs/sql/types/list/
4810class List(Func):
4811    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
4812    is_var_len_args = True
4813
4814
4815# String pad, kind True -> LPAD, False -> RPAD
4816class Pad(Func):
4817    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "fill_pattern": False, "is_left": True}
4818
4819
4820# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_char
4821# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/23/sqlrf/TO_CHAR-number.html
4822class ToChar(Func):
4823    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False, "nlsparam": False}
4824
4825
4826# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/to_decimal
4827# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/23/sqlrf/TO_NUMBER.html
4828class ToNumber(Func):
4829    arg_types = {
4830        "this": True,
4831        "format": False,
4832        "nlsparam": False,
4833        "precision": False,
4834        "scale": False,
4835    }
4836
4837
4838# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16#syntax
4839class Convert(Func):
4840    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "style": False}
4841
4842
4843class GenerateSeries(Func):
4844    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "step": False, "is_end_exclusive": False}
4845
4846
4847# Postgres' GENERATE_SERIES function returns a row set, i.e. it implicitly explodes when it's
4848# used in a projection, so this expression is a helper that facilitates transpilation to other
4849# dialects. For example, we'd generate UNNEST(GENERATE_SERIES(...)) in DuckDB
4850class ExplodingGenerateSeries(GenerateSeries):
4851    pass
4852
4853
4854class ArrayAgg(AggFunc):
4855    pass
4856
4857
4858class ArrayUniqueAgg(AggFunc):
4859    pass
4860
4861
4862class ArrayAll(Func):
4863    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4864
4865
4866# Represents Python's `any(f(x) for x in array)`, where `array` is `this` and `f` is `expression`
4867class ArrayAny(Func):
4868    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4869
4870
4871class ArrayConcat(Func):
4872    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_CONCAT", "ARRAY_CAT"]
4873    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
4874    is_var_len_args = True
4875
4876
4877class ArrayConstructCompact(Func):
4878    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
4879    is_var_len_args = True
4880
4881
4882class ArrayContains(Binary, Func):
4883    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_CONTAINS", "ARRAY_HAS"]
4884
4885
4886class ArrayContainsAll(Binary, Func):
4887    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_CONTAINS_ALL", "ARRAY_HAS_ALL"]
4888
4889
4890class ArrayFilter(Func):
4891    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
4892    _sql_names = ["FILTER", "ARRAY_FILTER"]
4893
4894
4895class ArrayToString(Func):
4896    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
4897    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_TO_STRING", "ARRAY_JOIN"]
4898
4899
4900class StringToArray(Func):
4901    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "null": False}
4902    _sql_names = ["STRING_TO_ARRAY", "SPLIT_BY_STRING"]
4903
4904
4905class ArrayOverlaps(Binary, Func):
4906    pass
4907
4908
4909class ArraySize(Func):
4910    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4911    _sql_names = ["ARRAY_SIZE", "ARRAY_LENGTH"]
4912
4913
4914class ArraySort(Func):
4915    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4916
4917
4918class ArraySum(Func):
4919    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
4920
4921
4922class ArrayUnionAgg(AggFunc):
4923    pass
4924
4925
4926class Avg(AggFunc):
4927    pass
4928
4929
4930class AnyValue(AggFunc):
4931    pass
4932
4933
4934class Lag(AggFunc):
4935    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": False, "default": False}
4936
4937
4938class Lead(AggFunc):
4939    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": False, "default": False}
4940
4941
4942# some dialects have a distinction between first and first_value, usually first is an aggregate func
4943# and first_value is a window func
4944class First(AggFunc):
4945    pass
4946
4947
4948class Last(AggFunc):
4949    pass
4950
4951
4952class FirstValue(AggFunc):
4953    pass
4954
4955
4956class LastValue(AggFunc):
4957    pass
4958
4959
4960class NthValue(AggFunc):
4961    arg_types = {"this": True, "offset": True}
4962
4963
4964class Case(Func):
4965    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
4966
4967    def when(self, condition: ExpOrStr, then: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4968        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4969        instance.append(
4970            "ifs",
4971            If(
4972                this=maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts),
4973                true=maybe_parse(then, copy=copy, **opts),
4974            ),
4975        )
4976        return instance
4977
4978    def else_(self, condition: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Case:
4979        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
4980        instance.set("default", maybe_parse(condition, copy=copy, **opts))
4981        return instance
4982
4983
4984class Cast(Func):
4985    arg_types = {
4986        "this": True,
4987        "to": True,
4988        "format": False,
4989        "safe": False,
4990        "action": False,
4991    }
4992
4993    @property
4994    def name(self) -> str:
4995        return self.this.name
4996
4997    @property
4998    def to(self) -> DataType:
4999        return self.args["to"]
5000
5001    @property
5002    def output_name(self) -> str:
5003        return self.name
5004
5005    def is_type(self, *dtypes: DATA_TYPE) -> bool:
5006        """
5007        Checks whether this Cast's DataType matches one of the provided data types. Nested types
5008        like arrays or structs will be compared using "structural equivalence" semantics, so e.g.
5009        array<int> != array<float>.
5010
5011        Args:
5012            dtypes: the data types to compare this Cast's DataType to.
5013
5014        Returns:
5015            True, if and only if there is a type in `dtypes` which is equal to this Cast's DataType.
5016        """
5017        return self.to.is_type(*dtypes)
5018
5019
5020class TryCast(Cast):
5021    pass
5022
5023
5024class Try(Func):
5025    pass
5026
5027
5028class CastToStrType(Func):
5029    arg_types = {"this": True, "to": True}
5030
5031
5032class Collate(Binary, Func):
5033    pass
5034
5035
5036class Ceil(Func):
5037    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
5038    _sql_names = ["CEIL", "CEILING"]
5039
5040
5041class Coalesce(Func):
5042    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5043    is_var_len_args = True
5044    _sql_names = ["COALESCE", "IFNULL", "NVL"]
5045
5046
5047class Chr(Func):
5048    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": False, "expressions": False}
5049    is_var_len_args = True
5050    _sql_names = ["CHR", "CHAR"]
5051
5052
5053class Concat(Func):
5054    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "safe": False, "coalesce": False}
5055    is_var_len_args = True
5056
5057
5058class ConcatWs(Concat):
5059    _sql_names = ["CONCAT_WS"]
5060
5061
5062# https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B13789_01/server.101/b10759/operators004.htm#i1035022
5063class ConnectByRoot(Func):
5064    pass
5065
5066
5067class Count(AggFunc):
5068    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
5069    is_var_len_args = True
5070
5071
5072class CountIf(AggFunc):
5073    _sql_names = ["COUNT_IF", "COUNTIF"]
5074
5075
5076# cube root
5077class Cbrt(Func):
5078    pass
5079
5080
5081class CurrentDate(Func):
5082    arg_types = {"this": False}
5083
5084
5085class CurrentDatetime(Func):
5086    arg_types = {"this": False}
5087
5088
5089class CurrentTime(Func):
5090    arg_types = {"this": False}
5091
5092
5093class CurrentTimestamp(Func):
5094    arg_types = {"this": False, "transaction": False}
5095
5096
5097class CurrentUser(Func):
5098    arg_types = {"this": False}
5099
5100
5101class DateAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
5102    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5103
5104
5105class DateSub(Func, IntervalOp):
5106    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5107
5108
5109class DateDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5110    _sql_names = ["DATEDIFF", "DATE_DIFF"]
5111    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5112
5113
5114class DateTrunc(Func):
5115    arg_types = {"unit": True, "this": True, "zone": False}
5116
5117    def __init__(self, **args):
5118        unit = args.get("unit")
5119        if isinstance(unit, TimeUnit.VAR_LIKE):
5120            args["unit"] = Literal.string(
5121                (TimeUnit.UNABBREVIATED_UNIT_NAME.get(unit.name) or unit.name).upper()
5122            )
5123        elif isinstance(unit, Week):
5124            unit.set("this", Literal.string(unit.this.name.upper()))
5125
5126        super().__init__(**args)
5127
5128    @property
5129    def unit(self) -> Expression:
5130        return self.args["unit"]
5131
5132
5133# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/datetime_functions#datetime
5134# expression can either be time_expr or time_zone
5135class Datetime(Func):
5136    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5137
5138
5139class DatetimeAdd(Func, IntervalOp):
5140    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5141
5142
5143class DatetimeSub(Func, IntervalOp):
5144    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5145
5146
5147class DatetimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5148    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5149
5150
5151class DatetimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
5152    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
5153
5154
5155class DayOfWeek(Func):
5156    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_WEEK", "DAYOFWEEK"]
5157
5158
5159class DayOfMonth(Func):
5160    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_MONTH", "DAYOFMONTH"]
5161
5162
5163class DayOfYear(Func):
5164    _sql_names = ["DAY_OF_YEAR", "DAYOFYEAR"]
5165
5166
5167class ToDays(Func):
5168    pass
5169
5170
5171class WeekOfYear(Func):
5172    _sql_names = ["WEEK_OF_YEAR", "WEEKOFYEAR"]
5173
5174
5175class MonthsBetween(Func):
5176    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "roundoff": False}
5177
5178
5179class LastDay(Func, TimeUnit):
5180    _sql_names = ["LAST_DAY", "LAST_DAY_OF_MONTH"]
5181    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": False}
5182
5183
5184class Extract(Func):
5185    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5186
5187
5188class Timestamp(Func):
5189    arg_types = {"this": False, "zone": False, "with_tz": False}
5190
5191
5192class TimestampAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5193    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5194
5195
5196class TimestampSub(Func, TimeUnit):
5197    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5198
5199
5200class TimestampDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5201    _sql_names = ["TIMESTAMPDIFF", "TIMESTAMP_DIFF"]
5202    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5203
5204
5205class TimestampTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
5206    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
5207
5208
5209class TimeAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5210    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5211
5212
5213class TimeSub(Func, TimeUnit):
5214    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5215
5216
5217class TimeDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5218    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5219
5220
5221class TimeTrunc(Func, TimeUnit):
5222    arg_types = {"this": True, "unit": True, "zone": False}
5223
5224
5225class DateFromParts(Func):
5226    _sql_names = ["DATE_FROM_PARTS", "DATEFROMPARTS"]
5227    arg_types = {"year": True, "month": True, "day": True}
5228
5229
5230class TimeFromParts(Func):
5231    _sql_names = ["TIME_FROM_PARTS", "TIMEFROMPARTS"]
5232    arg_types = {
5233        "hour": True,
5234        "min": True,
5235        "sec": True,
5236        "nano": False,
5237        "fractions": False,
5238        "precision": False,
5239    }
5240
5241
5242class DateStrToDate(Func):
5243    pass
5244
5245
5246class DateToDateStr(Func):
5247    pass
5248
5249
5250class DateToDi(Func):
5251    pass
5252
5253
5254# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#date
5255class Date(Func):
5256    arg_types = {"this": False, "zone": False, "expressions": False}
5257    is_var_len_args = True
5258
5259
5260class Day(Func):
5261    pass
5262
5263
5264class Decode(Func):
5265    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True, "replace": False}
5266
5267
5268class DiToDate(Func):
5269    pass
5270
5271
5272class Encode(Func):
5273    arg_types = {"this": True, "charset": True}
5274
5275
5276class Exp(Func):
5277    pass
5278
5279
5280# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/flatten
5281class Explode(Func):
5282    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5283    is_var_len_args = True
5284
5285
5286class ExplodeOuter(Explode):
5287    pass
5288
5289
5290class Posexplode(Explode):
5291    pass
5292
5293
5294class PosexplodeOuter(Posexplode, ExplodeOuter):
5295    pass
5296
5297
5298class Unnest(Func, UDTF):
5299    arg_types = {
5300        "expressions": True,
5301        "alias": False,
5302        "offset": False,
5303    }
5304
5305    @property
5306    def selects(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5307        columns = super().selects
5308        offset = self.args.get("offset")
5309        if offset:
5310            columns = columns + [to_identifier("offset") if offset is True else offset]
5311        return columns
5312
5313
5314class Floor(Func):
5315    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False}
5316
5317
5318class FromBase64(Func):
5319    pass
5320
5321
5322class ToBase64(Func):
5323    pass
5324
5325
5326class GapFill(Func):
5327    arg_types = {
5328        "this": True,
5329        "ts_column": True,
5330        "bucket_width": True,
5331        "partitioning_columns": False,
5332        "value_columns": False,
5333        "origin": False,
5334        "ignore_nulls": False,
5335    }
5336
5337
5338class GenerateDateArray(Func):
5339    arg_types = {"start": True, "end": True, "interval": False}
5340
5341
5342class Greatest(Func):
5343    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5344    is_var_len_args = True
5345
5346
5347class GroupConcat(AggFunc):
5348    arg_types = {"this": True, "separator": False}
5349
5350
5351class Hex(Func):
5352    pass
5353
5354
5355class LowerHex(Hex):
5356    pass
5357
5358
5359class Xor(Connector, Func):
5360    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": False, "expressions": False}
5361
5362
5363class If(Func):
5364    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
5365    _sql_names = ["IF", "IIF"]
5366
5367
5368class Nullif(Func):
5369    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5370
5371
5372class Initcap(Func):
5373    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5374
5375
5376class IsNan(Func):
5377    _sql_names = ["IS_NAN", "ISNAN"]
5378
5379
5380class IsInf(Func):
5381    _sql_names = ["IS_INF", "ISINF"]
5382
5383
5384class JSONPath(Expression):
5385    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5386
5387    @property
5388    def output_name(self) -> str:
5389        last_segment = self.expressions[-1].this
5390        return last_segment if isinstance(last_segment, str) else ""
5391
5392
5393class JSONPathPart(Expression):
5394    arg_types = {}
5395
5396
5397class JSONPathFilter(JSONPathPart):
5398    arg_types = {"this": True}
5399
5400
5401class JSONPathKey(JSONPathPart):
5402    arg_types = {"this": True}
5403
5404
5405class JSONPathRecursive(JSONPathPart):
5406    arg_types = {"this": False}
5407
5408
5409class JSONPathRoot(JSONPathPart):
5410    pass
5411
5412
5413class JSONPathScript(JSONPathPart):
5414    arg_types = {"this": True}
5415
5416
5417class JSONPathSlice(JSONPathPart):
5418    arg_types = {"start": False, "end": False, "step": False}
5419
5420
5421class JSONPathSelector(JSONPathPart):
5422    arg_types = {"this": True}
5423
5424
5425class JSONPathSubscript(JSONPathPart):
5426    arg_types = {"this": True}
5427
5428
5429class JSONPathUnion(JSONPathPart):
5430    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5431
5432
5433class JSONPathWildcard(JSONPathPart):
5434    pass
5435
5436
5437class FormatJson(Expression):
5438    pass
5439
5440
5441class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
5442    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5443
5444
5445class JSONObject(Func):
5446    arg_types = {
5447        "expressions": False,
5448        "null_handling": False,
5449        "unique_keys": False,
5450        "return_type": False,
5451        "encoding": False,
5452    }
5453
5454
5455class JSONObjectAgg(AggFunc):
5456    arg_types = {
5457        "expressions": False,
5458        "null_handling": False,
5459        "unique_keys": False,
5460        "return_type": False,
5461        "encoding": False,
5462    }
5463
5464
5465# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAY.html
5466class JSONArray(Func):
5467    arg_types = {
5468        "expressions": True,
5469        "null_handling": False,
5470        "return_type": False,
5471        "strict": False,
5472    }
5473
5474
5475# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_ARRAYAGG.html
5476class JSONArrayAgg(Func):
5477    arg_types = {
5478        "this": True,
5479        "order": False,
5480        "null_handling": False,
5481        "return_type": False,
5482        "strict": False,
5483    }
5484
5485
5486# https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
5487# Note: parsing of JSON column definitions is currently incomplete.
5488class JSONColumnDef(Expression):
5489    arg_types = {"this": False, "kind": False, "path": False, "nested_schema": False}
5490
5491
5492class JSONSchema(Expression):
5493    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
5494
5495
5496# # https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/19/sqlrf/JSON_TABLE.html
5497class JSONTable(Func):
5498    arg_types = {
5499        "this": True,
5500        "schema": True,
5501        "path": False,
5502        "error_handling": False,
5503        "empty_handling": False,
5504    }
5505
5506
5507# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/object_insert
5508class ObjectInsert(Func):
5509    arg_types = {
5510        "this": True,
5511        "key": True,
5512        "value": True,
5513        "update_flag": False,
5514    }
5515
5516
5517class OpenJSONColumnDef(Expression):
5518    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "path": False, "as_json": False}
5519
5520
5521class OpenJSON(Func):
5522    arg_types = {"this": True, "path": False, "expressions": False}
5523
5524
5525class JSONBContains(Binary, Func):
5526    _sql_names = ["JSONB_CONTAINS"]
5527
5528
5529class JSONExtract(Binary, Func):
5530    arg_types = {
5531        "this": True,
5532        "expression": True,
5533        "only_json_types": False,
5534        "expressions": False,
5535        "variant_extract": False,
5536    }
5537    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT"]
5538    is_var_len_args = True
5539
5540    @property
5541    def output_name(self) -> str:
5542        return self.expression.output_name if not self.expressions else ""
5543
5544
5545class JSONExtractScalar(Binary, Func):
5546    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "only_json_types": False, "expressions": False}
5547    _sql_names = ["JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
5548    is_var_len_args = True
5549
5550    @property
5551    def output_name(self) -> str:
5552        return self.expression.output_name
5553
5554
5555class JSONBExtract(Binary, Func):
5556    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT"]
5557
5558
5559class JSONBExtractScalar(Binary, Func):
5560    _sql_names = ["JSONB_EXTRACT_SCALAR"]
5561
5562
5563class JSONFormat(Func):
5564    arg_types = {"this": False, "options": False}
5565    _sql_names = ["JSON_FORMAT"]
5566
5567
5568# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/json-search-functions.html#operator_member-of
5569class JSONArrayContains(Binary, Predicate, Func):
5570    _sql_names = ["JSON_ARRAY_CONTAINS"]
5571
5572
5573class ParseJSON(Func):
5574    # BigQuery, Snowflake have PARSE_JSON, Presto has JSON_PARSE
5575    # Snowflake also has TRY_PARSE_JSON, which is represented using `safe`
5576    _sql_names = ["PARSE_JSON", "JSON_PARSE"]
5577    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "safe": False}
5578
5579
5580class Least(Func):
5581    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5582    is_var_len_args = True
5583
5584
5585class Left(Func):
5586    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5587
5588
5589class Right(Func):
5590    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5591
5592
5593class Length(Func):
5594    arg_types = {"this": True, "binary": False}
5595    _sql_names = ["LENGTH", "LEN"]
5596
5597
5598class Levenshtein(Func):
5599    arg_types = {
5600        "this": True,
5601        "expression": False,
5602        "ins_cost": False,
5603        "del_cost": False,
5604        "sub_cost": False,
5605    }
5606
5607
5608class Ln(Func):
5609    pass
5610
5611
5612class Log(Func):
5613    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5614
5615
5616class LogicalOr(AggFunc):
5617    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_OR", "BOOL_OR", "BOOLOR_AGG"]
5618
5619
5620class LogicalAnd(AggFunc):
5621    _sql_names = ["LOGICAL_AND", "BOOL_AND", "BOOLAND_AGG"]
5622
5623
5624class Lower(Func):
5625    _sql_names = ["LOWER", "LCASE"]
5626
5627
5628class Map(Func):
5629    arg_types = {"keys": False, "values": False}
5630
5631    @property
5632    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5633        keys = self.args.get("keys")
5634        return keys.expressions if keys else []
5635
5636    @property
5637    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5638        values = self.args.get("values")
5639        return values.expressions if values else []
5640
5641
5642# Represents the MAP {...} syntax in DuckDB - basically convert a struct to a MAP
5643class ToMap(Func):
5644    pass
5645
5646
5647class MapFromEntries(Func):
5648    pass
5649
5650
5651# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/language-elements/scope-resolution-operator-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5652class ScopeResolution(Expression):
5653    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
5654
5655
5656class StarMap(Func):
5657    pass
5658
5659
5660class VarMap(Func):
5661    arg_types = {"keys": True, "values": True}
5662    is_var_len_args = True
5663
5664    @property
5665    def keys(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5666        return self.args["keys"].expressions
5667
5668    @property
5669    def values(self) -> t.List[Expression]:
5670        return self.args["values"].expressions
5671
5672
5673# https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/fulltext-search.html
5674class MatchAgainst(Func):
5675    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "modifier": False}
5676
5677
5678class Max(AggFunc):
5679    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5680    is_var_len_args = True
5681
5682
5683class MD5(Func):
5684    _sql_names = ["MD5"]
5685
5686
5687# Represents the variant of the MD5 function that returns a binary value
5688class MD5Digest(Func):
5689    _sql_names = ["MD5_DIGEST"]
5690
5691
5692class Min(AggFunc):
5693    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5694    is_var_len_args = True
5695
5696
5697class Month(Func):
5698    pass
5699
5700
5701class AddMonths(Func):
5702    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5703
5704
5705class Nvl2(Func):
5706    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
5707
5708
5709# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/bigqueryml-syntax-predict#mlpredict_function
5710class Predict(Func):
5711    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "params_struct": False}
5712
5713
5714class Pow(Binary, Func):
5715    _sql_names = ["POWER", "POW"]
5716
5717
5718class PercentileCont(AggFunc):
5719    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5720
5721
5722class PercentileDisc(AggFunc):
5723    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5724
5725
5726class Quantile(AggFunc):
5727    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True}
5728
5729
5730class ApproxQuantile(Quantile):
5731    arg_types = {"this": True, "quantile": True, "accuracy": False, "weight": False}
5732
5733
5734class Quarter(Func):
5735    pass
5736
5737
5738# https://docs.teradata.com/r/Enterprise_IntelliFlex_VMware/SQL-Functions-Expressions-and-Predicates/Arithmetic-Trigonometric-Hyperbolic-Operators/Functions/RANDOM/RANDOM-Function-Syntax
5739# teradata lower and upper bounds
5740class Rand(Func):
5741    _sql_names = ["RAND", "RANDOM"]
5742    arg_types = {"this": False, "lower": False, "upper": False}
5743
5744
5745class Randn(Func):
5746    arg_types = {"this": False}
5747
5748
5749class RangeN(Func):
5750    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "each": False}
5751
5752
5753class ReadCSV(Func):
5754    _sql_names = ["READ_CSV"]
5755    is_var_len_args = True
5756    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False}
5757
5758
5759class Reduce(Func):
5760    arg_types = {"this": True, "initial": True, "merge": True, "finish": False}
5761
5762
5763class RegexpExtract(Func):
5764    arg_types = {
5765        "this": True,
5766        "expression": True,
5767        "position": False,
5768        "occurrence": False,
5769        "parameters": False,
5770        "group": False,
5771    }
5772
5773
5774class RegexpReplace(Func):
5775    arg_types = {
5776        "this": True,
5777        "expression": True,
5778        "replacement": False,
5779        "position": False,
5780        "occurrence": False,
5781        "modifiers": False,
5782    }
5783
5784
5785class RegexpLike(Binary, Func):
5786    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
5787
5788
5789class RegexpILike(Binary, Func):
5790    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "flag": False}
5791
5792
5793# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/python/reference/pyspark.sql/api/pyspark.sql.functions.split.html
5794# limit is the number of times a pattern is applied
5795class RegexpSplit(Func):
5796    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
5797
5798
5799class Repeat(Func):
5800    arg_types = {"this": True, "times": True}
5801
5802
5803# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/round-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5804# tsql third argument function == trunctaion if not 0
5805class Round(Func):
5806    arg_types = {"this": True, "decimals": False, "truncate": False}
5807
5808
5809class RowNumber(Func):
5810    arg_types: t.Dict[str, t.Any] = {}
5811
5812
5813class SafeDivide(Func):
5814    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5815
5816
5817class SHA(Func):
5818    _sql_names = ["SHA", "SHA1"]
5819
5820
5821class SHA2(Func):
5822    _sql_names = ["SHA2"]
5823    arg_types = {"this": True, "length": False}
5824
5825
5826class Sign(Func):
5827    _sql_names = ["SIGN", "SIGNUM"]
5828
5829
5830class SortArray(Func):
5831    arg_types = {"this": True, "asc": False}
5832
5833
5834class Split(Func):
5835    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "limit": False}
5836
5837
5838# Start may be omitted in the case of postgres
5839# https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/functions-string.html @ Table 9-6
5840class Substring(Func):
5841    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": False, "length": False}
5842
5843
5844class StandardHash(Func):
5845    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
5846
5847
5848class StartsWith(Func):
5849    _sql_names = ["STARTS_WITH", "STARTSWITH"]
5850    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5851
5852
5853class StrPosition(Func):
5854    arg_types = {
5855        "this": True,
5856        "substr": True,
5857        "position": False,
5858        "instance": False,
5859    }
5860
5861
5862class StrToDate(Func):
5863    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False, "safe": False}
5864
5865
5866class StrToTime(Func):
5867    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "zone": False, "safe": False}
5868
5869
5870# Spark allows unix_timestamp()
5871# https://spark.apache.org/docs/3.1.3/api/python/reference/api/pyspark.sql.functions.unix_timestamp.html
5872class StrToUnix(Func):
5873    arg_types = {"this": False, "format": False}
5874
5875
5876# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/string.html
5877# https://spark.apache.org/docs/latest/api/sql/index.html#str_to_map
5878class StrToMap(Func):
5879    arg_types = {
5880        "this": True,
5881        "pair_delim": False,
5882        "key_value_delim": False,
5883        "duplicate_resolution_callback": False,
5884    }
5885
5886
5887class NumberToStr(Func):
5888    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False}
5889
5890
5891class FromBase(Func):
5892    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5893
5894
5895class Struct(Func):
5896    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
5897    is_var_len_args = True
5898
5899
5900class StructExtract(Func):
5901    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
5902
5903
5904# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/stuff-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
5905# https://docs.snowflake.com/en/sql-reference/functions/insert
5906class Stuff(Func):
5907    _sql_names = ["STUFF", "INSERT"]
5908    arg_types = {"this": True, "start": True, "length": True, "expression": True}
5909
5910
5911class Sum(AggFunc):
5912    pass
5913
5914
5915class Sqrt(Func):
5916    pass
5917
5918
5919class Stddev(AggFunc):
5920    _sql_names = ["STDDEV", "STDEV"]
5921
5922
5923class StddevPop(AggFunc):
5924    pass
5925
5926
5927class StddevSamp(AggFunc):
5928    pass
5929
5930
5931# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/time_functions#time
5932class Time(Func):
5933    arg_types = {"this": False, "zone": False}
5934
5935
5936class TimeToStr(Func):
5937    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": True, "culture": False, "timezone": False}
5938
5939
5940class TimeToTimeStr(Func):
5941    pass
5942
5943
5944class TimeToUnix(Func):
5945    pass
5946
5947
5948class TimeStrToDate(Func):
5949    pass
5950
5951
5952class TimeStrToTime(Func):
5953    pass
5954
5955
5956class TimeStrToUnix(Func):
5957    pass
5958
5959
5960class Trim(Func):
5961    arg_types = {
5962        "this": True,
5963        "expression": False,
5964        "position": False,
5965        "collation": False,
5966    }
5967
5968
5969class TsOrDsAdd(Func, TimeUnit):
5970    # return_type is used to correctly cast the arguments of this expression when transpiling it
5971    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False, "return_type": False}
5972
5973    @property
5974    def return_type(self) -> DataType:
5975        return DataType.build(self.args.get("return_type") or DataType.Type.DATE)
5976
5977
5978class TsOrDsDiff(Func, TimeUnit):
5979    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "unit": False}
5980
5981
5982class TsOrDsToDateStr(Func):
5983    pass
5984
5985
5986class TsOrDsToDate(Func):
5987    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False, "safe": False}
5988
5989
5990class TsOrDsToTime(Func):
5991    pass
5992
5993
5994class TsOrDsToTimestamp(Func):
5995    pass
5996
5997
5998class TsOrDiToDi(Func):
5999    pass
6000
6001
6002class Unhex(Func):
6003    pass
6004
6005
6006# https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/date_functions#unix_date
6007class UnixDate(Func):
6008    pass
6009
6010
6011class UnixToStr(Func):
6012    arg_types = {"this": True, "format": False}
6013
6014
6015# https://prestodb.io/docs/current/functions/datetime.html
6016# presto has weird zone/hours/minutes
6017class UnixToTime(Func):
6018    arg_types = {
6019        "this": True,
6020        "scale": False,
6021        "zone": False,
6022        "hours": False,
6023        "minutes": False,
6024        "format": False,
6025    }
6026
6027    SECONDS = Literal.number(0)
6028    DECIS = Literal.number(1)
6029    CENTIS = Literal.number(2)
6030    MILLIS = Literal.number(3)
6031    DECIMILLIS = Literal.number(4)
6032    CENTIMILLIS = Literal.number(5)
6033    MICROS = Literal.number(6)
6034    DECIMICROS = Literal.number(7)
6035    CENTIMICROS = Literal.number(8)
6036    NANOS = Literal.number(9)
6037
6038
6039class UnixToTimeStr(Func):
6040    pass
6041
6042
6043class TimestampFromParts(Func):
6044    _sql_names = ["TIMESTAMP_FROM_PARTS", "TIMESTAMPFROMPARTS"]
6045    arg_types = {
6046        "year": True,
6047        "month": True,
6048        "day": True,
6049        "hour": True,
6050        "min": True,
6051        "sec": True,
6052        "nano": False,
6053        "zone": False,
6054        "milli": False,
6055    }
6056
6057
6058class Upper(Func):
6059    _sql_names = ["UPPER", "UCASE"]
6060
6061
6062class Corr(Binary, AggFunc):
6063    pass
6064
6065
6066class Variance(AggFunc):
6067    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE", "VARIANCE_SAMP", "VAR_SAMP"]
6068
6069
6070class VariancePop(AggFunc):
6071    _sql_names = ["VARIANCE_POP", "VAR_POP"]
6072
6073
6074class CovarSamp(Binary, AggFunc):
6075    pass
6076
6077
6078class CovarPop(Binary, AggFunc):
6079    pass
6080
6081
6082class Week(Func):
6083    arg_types = {"this": True, "mode": False}
6084
6085
6086class XMLTable(Func):
6087    arg_types = {"this": True, "passing": False, "columns": False, "by_ref": False}
6088
6089
6090class Year(Func):
6091    pass
6092
6093
6094class Use(Expression):
6095    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": False}
6096
6097
6098class Merge(Expression):
6099    arg_types = {
6100        "this": True,
6101        "using": True,
6102        "on": True,
6103        "expressions": True,
6104        "with": False,
6105    }
6106
6107
6108class When(Func):
6109    arg_types = {"matched": True, "source": False, "condition": False, "then": True}
6110
6111
6112# https://docs.oracle.com/javadb/10.8.3.0/ref/rrefsqljnextvaluefor.html
6113# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/next-value-for-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
6114class NextValueFor(Func):
6115    arg_types = {"this": True, "order": False}
6116
6117
6118# Refers to a trailing semi-colon. This is only used to preserve trailing comments
6119# select 1; -- my comment
6120class Semicolon(Expression):
6121    arg_types = {}
6122
6123
6124def _norm_arg(arg):
6125    return arg.lower() if type(arg) is str else arg
6126
6127
6128ALL_FUNCTIONS = subclasses(__name__, Func, (AggFunc, Anonymous, Func))
6129FUNCTION_BY_NAME = {name: func for func in ALL_FUNCTIONS for name in func.sql_names()}
6130
6131JSON_PATH_PARTS = subclasses(__name__, JSONPathPart, (JSONPathPart,))
6132
6133PERCENTILES = (PercentileCont, PercentileDisc)
6134
6135
6136# Helpers
6137@t.overload
6138def maybe_parse(
6139    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
6140    *,
6141    into: t.Type[E],
6142    dialect: DialectType = None,
6143    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
6144    copy: bool = False,
6145    **opts,
6146) -> E: ...
6147
6148
6149@t.overload
6150def maybe_parse(
6151    sql_or_expression: str | E,
6152    *,
6153    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
6154    dialect: DialectType = None,
6155    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
6156    copy: bool = False,
6157    **opts,
6158) -> E: ...
6159
6160
6161def maybe_parse(
6162    sql_or_expression: ExpOrStr,
6163    *,
6164    into: t.Optional[IntoType] = None,
6165    dialect: DialectType = None,
6166    prefix: t.Optional[str] = None,
6167    copy: bool = False,
6168    **opts,
6169) -> Expression:
6170    """Gracefully handle a possible string or expression.
6171
6172    Example:
6173        >>> maybe_parse("1")
6174        Literal(this=1, is_string=False)
6175        >>> maybe_parse(to_identifier("x"))
6176        Identifier(this=x, quoted=False)
6177
6178    Args:
6179        sql_or_expression: the SQL code string or an expression
6180        into: the SQLGlot Expression to parse into
6181        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
6182            input expression is a SQL string).
6183        prefix: a string to prefix the sql with before it gets parsed
6184            (automatically includes a space)
6185        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6186        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6187            that an input expression is a SQL string).
6188
6189    Returns:
6190        Expression: the parsed or given expression.
6191    """
6192    if isinstance(sql_or_expression, Expression):
6193        if copy:
6194            return sql_or_expression.copy()
6195        return sql_or_expression
6196
6197    if sql_or_expression is None:
6198        raise ParseError("SQL cannot be None")
6199
6200    import sqlglot
6201
6202    sql = str(sql_or_expression)
6203    if prefix:
6204        sql = f"{prefix} {sql}"
6205
6206    return sqlglot.parse_one(sql, read=dialect, into=into, **opts)
6207
6208
6209@t.overload
6210def maybe_copy(instance: None, copy: bool = True) -> None: ...
6211
6212
6213@t.overload
6214def maybe_copy(instance: E, copy: bool = True) -> E: ...
6215
6216
6217def maybe_copy(instance, copy=True):
6218    return instance.copy() if copy and instance else instance
6219
6220
6221def _to_s(node: t.Any, verbose: bool = False, level: int = 0) -> str:
6222    """Generate a textual representation of an Expression tree"""
6223    indent = "\n" + ("  " * (level + 1))
6224    delim = f",{indent}"
6225
6226    if isinstance(node, Expression):
6227        args = {k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if (v is not None and v != []) or verbose}
6228
6229        if (node.type or verbose) and not isinstance(node, DataType):
6230            args["_type"] = node.type
6231        if node.comments or verbose:
6232            args["_comments"] = node.comments
6233
6234        if verbose:
6235            args["_id"] = id(node)
6236
6237        # Inline leaves for a more compact representation
6238        if node.is_leaf():
6239            indent = ""
6240            delim = ", "
6241
6242        items = delim.join([f"{k}={_to_s(v, verbose, level + 1)}" for k, v in args.items()])
6243        return f"{node.__class__.__name__}({indent}{items})"
6244
6245    if isinstance(node, list):
6246        items = delim.join(_to_s(i, verbose, level + 1) for i in node)
6247        items = f"{indent}{items}" if items else ""
6248        return f"[{items}]"
6249
6250    # Indent multiline strings to match the current level
6251    return indent.join(textwrap.dedent(str(node).strip("\n")).splitlines())
6252
6253
6254def _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
6255    return isinstance(expression, Expression) and not isinstance(expression, into)
6256
6257
6258def _apply_builder(
6259    expression,
6260    instance,
6261    arg,
6262    copy=True,
6263    prefix=None,
6264    into=None,
6265    dialect=None,
6266    into_arg="this",
6267    **opts,
6268):
6269    if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
6270        expression = into(**{into_arg: expression})
6271    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6272    expression = maybe_parse(
6273        sql_or_expression=expression,
6274        prefix=prefix,
6275        into=into,
6276        dialect=dialect,
6277        **opts,
6278    )
6279    instance.set(arg, expression)
6280    return instance
6281
6282
6283def _apply_child_list_builder(
6284    *expressions,
6285    instance,
6286    arg,
6287    append=True,
6288    copy=True,
6289    prefix=None,
6290    into=None,
6291    dialect=None,
6292    properties=None,
6293    **opts,
6294):
6295    instance = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6296    parsed = []
6297    properties = {} if properties is None else properties
6298
6299    for expression in expressions:
6300        if expression is not None:
6301            if _is_wrong_expression(expression, into):
6302                expression = into(expressions=[expression])
6303
6304            expression = maybe_parse(
6305                expression,
6306                into=into,
6307                dialect=dialect,
6308                prefix=prefix,
6309                **opts,
6310            )
6311            for k, v in expression.args.items():
6312                if k == "expressions":
6313                    parsed.extend(v)
6314                else:
6315                    properties[k] = v
6316
6317    existing = instance.args.get(arg)
6318    if append and existing:
6319        parsed = existing.expressions + parsed
6320
6321    child = into(expressions=parsed)
6322    for k, v in properties.items():
6323        child.set(k, v)
6324    instance.set(arg, child)
6325
6326    return instance
6327
6328
6329def _apply_list_builder(
6330    *expressions,
6331    instance,
6332    arg,
6333    append=True,
6334    copy=True,
6335    prefix=None,
6336    into=None,
6337    dialect=None,
6338    **opts,
6339):
6340    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6341
6342    expressions = [
6343        maybe_parse(
6344            sql_or_expression=expression,
6345            into=into,
6346            prefix=prefix,
6347            dialect=dialect,
6348            **opts,
6349        )
6350        for expression in expressions
6351        if expression is not None
6352    ]
6353
6354    existing_expressions = inst.args.get(arg)
6355    if append and existing_expressions:
6356        expressions = existing_expressions + expressions
6357
6358    inst.set(arg, expressions)
6359    return inst
6360
6361
6362def _apply_conjunction_builder(
6363    *expressions,
6364    instance,
6365    arg,
6366    into=None,
6367    append=True,
6368    copy=True,
6369    dialect=None,
6370    **opts,
6371):
6372    expressions = [exp for exp in expressions if exp is not None and exp != ""]
6373    if not expressions:
6374        return instance
6375
6376    inst = maybe_copy(instance, copy)
6377
6378    existing = inst.args.get(arg)
6379    if append and existing is not None:
6380        expressions = [existing.this if into else existing] + list(expressions)
6381
6382    node = and_(*expressions, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6383
6384    inst.set(arg, into(this=node) if into else node)
6385    return inst
6386
6387
6388def _apply_cte_builder(
6389    instance: E,
6390    alias: ExpOrStr,
6391    as_: ExpOrStr,
6392    recursive: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6393    append: bool = True,
6394    dialect: DialectType = None,
6395    copy: bool = True,
6396    **opts,
6397) -> E:
6398    alias_expression = maybe_parse(alias, dialect=dialect, into=TableAlias, **opts)
6399    as_expression = maybe_parse(as_, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6400    cte = CTE(this=as_expression, alias=alias_expression)
6401    return _apply_child_list_builder(
6402        cte,
6403        instance=instance,
6404        arg="with",
6405        append=append,
6406        copy=copy,
6407        into=With,
6408        properties={"recursive": recursive or False},
6409    )
6410
6411
6412def _combine(
6413    expressions: t.Sequence[t.Optional[ExpOrStr]],
6414    operator: t.Type[Connector],
6415    dialect: DialectType = None,
6416    copy: bool = True,
6417    **opts,
6418) -> Expression:
6419    conditions = [
6420        condition(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6421        for expression in expressions
6422        if expression is not None
6423    ]
6424
6425    this, *rest = conditions
6426    if rest:
6427        this = _wrap(this, Connector)
6428    for expression in rest:
6429        this = operator(this=this, expression=_wrap(expression, Connector))
6430
6431    return this
6432
6433
6434def _wrap(expression: E, kind: t.Type[Expression]) -> E | Paren:
6435    return Paren(this=expression) if isinstance(expression, kind) else expression
6436
6437
6438def union(
6439    left: ExpOrStr,
6440    right: ExpOrStr,
6441    distinct: bool = True,
6442    dialect: DialectType = None,
6443    copy: bool = True,
6444    **opts,
6445) -> Union:
6446    """
6447    Initializes a syntax tree from one UNION expression.
6448
6449    Example:
6450        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
6451        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
6452
6453    Args:
6454        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
6455            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6456        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
6457            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6458        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
6459        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6460        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6461        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6462
6463    Returns:
6464        The new Union instance.
6465    """
6466    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6467    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6468
6469    return Union(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
6470
6471
6472def intersect(
6473    left: ExpOrStr,
6474    right: ExpOrStr,
6475    distinct: bool = True,
6476    dialect: DialectType = None,
6477    copy: bool = True,
6478    **opts,
6479) -> Intersect:
6480    """
6481    Initializes a syntax tree from one INTERSECT expression.
6482
6483    Example:
6484        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
6485        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
6486
6487    Args:
6488        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
6489            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6490        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
6491            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6492        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
6493        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6494        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6495        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6496
6497    Returns:
6498        The new Intersect instance.
6499    """
6500    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6501    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6502
6503    return Intersect(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
6504
6505
6506def except_(
6507    left: ExpOrStr,
6508    right: ExpOrStr,
6509    distinct: bool = True,
6510    dialect: DialectType = None,
6511    copy: bool = True,
6512    **opts,
6513) -> Except:
6514    """
6515    Initializes a syntax tree from one EXCEPT expression.
6516
6517    Example:
6518        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
6519        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
6520
6521    Args:
6522        left: the SQL code string corresponding to the left-hand side.
6523            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6524        right: the SQL code string corresponding to the right-hand side.
6525            If an `Expression` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
6526        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
6527        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6528        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6529        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6530
6531    Returns:
6532        The new Except instance.
6533    """
6534    left = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=left, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6535    right = maybe_parse(sql_or_expression=right, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6536
6537    return Except(this=left, expression=right, distinct=distinct)
6538
6539
6540def select(*expressions: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
6541    """
6542    Initializes a syntax tree from one or multiple SELECT expressions.
6543
6544    Example:
6545        >>> select("col1", "col2").from_("tbl").sql()
6546        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
6547
6548    Args:
6549        *expressions: the SQL code string to parse as the expressions of a
6550            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6551        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions (in the case that an
6552            input expression is a SQL string).
6553        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6554            that an input expression is a SQL string).
6555
6556    Returns:
6557        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
6558    """
6559    return Select().select(*expressions, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6560
6561
6562def from_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, **opts) -> Select:
6563    """
6564    Initializes a syntax tree from a FROM expression.
6565
6566    Example:
6567        >>> from_("tbl").select("col1", "col2").sql()
6568        'SELECT col1, col2 FROM tbl'
6569
6570    Args:
6571        *expression: the SQL code string to parse as the FROM expressions of a
6572            SELECT statement. If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6573        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
6574            input expression is a SQL string).
6575        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6576            that the input expression is a SQL string).
6577
6578    Returns:
6579        Select: the syntax tree for the SELECT statement.
6580    """
6581    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
6582
6583
6584def update(
6585    table: str | Table,
6586    properties: dict,
6587    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6588    from_: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6589    dialect: DialectType = None,
6590    **opts,
6591) -> Update:
6592    """
6593    Creates an update statement.
6594
6595    Example:
6596        >>> update("my_table", {"x": 1, "y": "2", "z": None}, from_="baz", where="id > 1").sql()
6597        "UPDATE my_table SET x = 1, y = '2', z = NULL FROM baz WHERE id > 1"
6598
6599    Args:
6600        *properties: dictionary of properties to set which are
6601            auto converted to sql objects eg None -> NULL
6602        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
6603        from_: sql statement parsed into a FROM statement
6604        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6605        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6606
6607    Returns:
6608        Update: the syntax tree for the UPDATE statement.
6609    """
6610    update_expr = Update(this=maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect))
6611    update_expr.set(
6612        "expressions",
6613        [
6614            EQ(this=maybe_parse(k, dialect=dialect, **opts), expression=convert(v))
6615            for k, v in properties.items()
6616        ],
6617    )
6618    if from_:
6619        update_expr.set(
6620            "from",
6621            maybe_parse(from_, into=From, dialect=dialect, prefix="FROM", **opts),
6622        )
6623    if isinstance(where, Condition):
6624        where = Where(this=where)
6625    if where:
6626        update_expr.set(
6627            "where",
6628            maybe_parse(where, into=Where, dialect=dialect, prefix="WHERE", **opts),
6629        )
6630    return update_expr
6631
6632
6633def delete(
6634    table: ExpOrStr,
6635    where: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6636    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6637    dialect: DialectType = None,
6638    **opts,
6639) -> Delete:
6640    """
6641    Builds a delete statement.
6642
6643    Example:
6644        >>> delete("my_table", where="id > 1").sql()
6645        'DELETE FROM my_table WHERE id > 1'
6646
6647    Args:
6648        where: sql conditional parsed into a WHERE statement
6649        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
6650        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6651        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6652
6653    Returns:
6654        Delete: the syntax tree for the DELETE statement.
6655    """
6656    delete_expr = Delete().delete(table, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6657    if where:
6658        delete_expr = delete_expr.where(where, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6659    if returning:
6660        delete_expr = t.cast(
6661            Delete, delete_expr.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
6662        )
6663    return delete_expr
6664
6665
6666def insert(
6667    expression: ExpOrStr,
6668    into: ExpOrStr,
6669    columns: t.Optional[t.Sequence[str | Identifier]] = None,
6670    overwrite: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6671    returning: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
6672    dialect: DialectType = None,
6673    copy: bool = True,
6674    **opts,
6675) -> Insert:
6676    """
6677    Builds an INSERT statement.
6678
6679    Example:
6680        >>> insert("VALUES (1, 2, 3)", "tbl").sql()
6681        'INSERT INTO tbl VALUES (1, 2, 3)'
6682
6683    Args:
6684        expression: the sql string or expression of the INSERT statement
6685        into: the tbl to insert data to.
6686        columns: optionally the table's column names.
6687        overwrite: whether to INSERT OVERWRITE or not.
6688        returning: sql conditional parsed into a RETURNING statement
6689        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
6690        copy: whether to copy the expression.
6691        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6692
6693    Returns:
6694        Insert: the syntax tree for the INSERT statement.
6695    """
6696    expr = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6697    this: Table | Schema = maybe_parse(into, into=Table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
6698
6699    if columns:
6700        this = Schema(this=this, expressions=[to_identifier(c, copy=copy) for c in columns])
6701
6702    insert = Insert(this=this, expression=expr, overwrite=overwrite)
6703
6704    if returning:
6705        insert = t.cast(Insert, insert.returning(returning, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts))
6706
6707    return insert
6708
6709
6710def condition(
6711    expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6712) -> Condition:
6713    """
6714    Initialize a logical condition expression.
6715
6716    Example:
6717        >>> condition("x=1").sql()
6718        'x = 1'
6719
6720        This is helpful for composing larger logical syntax trees:
6721        >>> where = condition("x=1")
6722        >>> where = where.and_("y=1")
6723        >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("*").where(where).sql()
6724        'SELECT * FROM tbl WHERE x = 1 AND y = 1'
6725
6726    Args:
6727        *expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6728            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6729        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression (in the case that the
6730            input expression is a SQL string).
6731        copy: Whether to copy `expression` (only applies to expressions).
6732        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions (again, in the case
6733            that the input expression is a SQL string).
6734
6735    Returns:
6736        The new Condition instance
6737    """
6738    return maybe_parse(
6739        expression,
6740        into=Condition,
6741        dialect=dialect,
6742        copy=copy,
6743        **opts,
6744    )
6745
6746
6747def and_(
6748    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6749) -> Condition:
6750    """
6751    Combine multiple conditions with an AND logical operator.
6752
6753    Example:
6754        >>> and_("x=1", and_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6755        'x = 1 AND (y = 1 AND z = 1)'
6756
6757    Args:
6758        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6759            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6760        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6761        copy: whether to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6762        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6763
6764    Returns:
6765        The new condition
6766    """
6767    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, And, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6768
6769
6770def or_(
6771    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6772) -> Condition:
6773    """
6774    Combine multiple conditions with an OR logical operator.
6775
6776    Example:
6777        >>> or_("x=1", or_("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6778        'x = 1 OR (y = 1 OR z = 1)'
6779
6780    Args:
6781        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6782            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6783        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6784        copy: whether to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6785        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6786
6787    Returns:
6788        The new condition
6789    """
6790    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, Or, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6791
6792
6793def xor(
6794    *expressions: t.Optional[ExpOrStr], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts
6795) -> Condition:
6796    """
6797    Combine multiple conditions with an XOR logical operator.
6798
6799    Example:
6800        >>> xor("x=1", xor("y=1", "z=1")).sql()
6801        'x = 1 XOR (y = 1 XOR z = 1)'
6802
6803    Args:
6804        *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
6805            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6806        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6807        copy: whether to copy `expressions` (only applies to Expressions).
6808        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6809
6810    Returns:
6811        The new condition
6812    """
6813    return t.cast(Condition, _combine(expressions, Xor, dialect, copy=copy, **opts))
6814
6815
6816def not_(expression: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Not:
6817    """
6818    Wrap a condition with a NOT operator.
6819
6820    Example:
6821        >>> not_("this_suit='black'").sql()
6822        "NOT this_suit = 'black'"
6823
6824    Args:
6825        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6826            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6827        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
6828        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
6829        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
6830
6831    Returns:
6832        The new condition.
6833    """
6834    this = condition(
6835        expression,
6836        dialect=dialect,
6837        copy=copy,
6838        **opts,
6839    )
6840    return Not(this=_wrap(this, Connector))
6841
6842
6843def paren(expression: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True) -> Paren:
6844    """
6845    Wrap an expression in parentheses.
6846
6847    Example:
6848        >>> paren("5 + 3").sql()
6849        '(5 + 3)'
6850
6851    Args:
6852        expression: the SQL code string to parse.
6853            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
6854        copy: whether to copy the expression or not.
6855
6856    Returns:
6857        The wrapped expression.
6858    """
6859    return Paren(this=maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy))
6860
6861
6862SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE: t.Pattern[str] = re.compile(r"^[_a-zA-Z][\w]*$")
6863
6864
6865@t.overload
6866def to_identifier(name: None, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True) -> None: ...
6867
6868
6869@t.overload
6870def to_identifier(
6871    name: str | Identifier, quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None, copy: bool = True
6872) -> Identifier: ...
6873
6874
6875def to_identifier(name, quoted=None, copy=True):
6876    """Builds an identifier.
6877
6878    Args:
6879        name: The name to turn into an identifier.
6880        quoted: Whether to force quote the identifier.
6881        copy: Whether to copy name if it's an Identifier.
6882
6883    Returns:
6884        The identifier ast node.
6885    """
6886
6887    if name is None:
6888        return None
6889
6890    if isinstance(name, Identifier):
6891        identifier = maybe_copy(name, copy)
6892    elif isinstance(name, str):
6893        identifier = Identifier(
6894            this=name,
6895            quoted=not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(name) if quoted is None else quoted,
6896        )
6897    else:
6898        raise ValueError(f"Name needs to be a string or an Identifier, got: {name.__class__}")
6899    return identifier
6900
6901
6902def parse_identifier(name: str | Identifier, dialect: DialectType = None) -> Identifier:
6903    """
6904    Parses a given string into an identifier.
6905
6906    Args:
6907        name: The name to parse into an identifier.
6908        dialect: The dialect to parse against.
6909
6910    Returns:
6911        The identifier ast node.
6912    """
6913    try:
6914        expression = maybe_parse(name, dialect=dialect, into=Identifier)
6915    except (ParseError, TokenError):
6916        expression = to_identifier(name)
6917
6918    return expression
6919
6920
6921INTERVAL_STRING_RE = re.compile(r"\s*([0-9]+)\s*([a-zA-Z]+)\s*")
6922
6923
6924def to_interval(interval: str | Literal) -> Interval:
6925    """Builds an interval expression from a string like '1 day' or '5 months'."""
6926    if isinstance(interval, Literal):
6927        if not interval.is_string:
6928            raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
6929
6930        interval = interval.this
6931
6932    interval_parts = INTERVAL_STRING_RE.match(interval)  # type: ignore
6933
6934    if not interval_parts:
6935        raise ValueError("Invalid interval string.")
6936
6937    return Interval(
6938        this=Literal.string(interval_parts.group(1)),
6939        unit=Var(this=interval_parts.group(2).upper()),
6940    )
6941
6942
6943def to_table(
6944    sql_path: str | Table, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True, **kwargs
6945) -> Table:
6946    """
6947    Create a table expression from a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` sql path. Catalog and schema are optional.
6948    If a table is passed in then that table is returned.
6949
6950    Args:
6951        sql_path: a `[catalog].[schema].[table]` string.
6952        dialect: the source dialect according to which the table name will be parsed.
6953        copy: Whether to copy a table if it is passed in.
6954        kwargs: the kwargs to instantiate the resulting `Table` expression with.
6955
6956    Returns:
6957        A table expression.
6958    """
6959    if isinstance(sql_path, Table):
6960        return maybe_copy(sql_path, copy=copy)
6961
6962    table = maybe_parse(sql_path, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
6963
6964    for k, v in kwargs.items():
6965        table.set(k, v)
6966
6967    return table
6968
6969
6970def to_column(
6971    sql_path: str | Column,
6972    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
6973    dialect: DialectType = None,
6974    copy: bool = True,
6975    **kwargs,
6976) -> Column:
6977    """
6978    Create a column from a `[table].[column]` sql path. Table is optional.
6979    If a column is passed in then that column is returned.
6980
6981    Args:
6982        sql_path: a `[table].[column]` string.
6983        quoted: Whether or not to force quote identifiers.
6984        dialect: the source dialect according to which the column name will be parsed.
6985        copy: Whether to copy a column if it is passed in.
6986        kwargs: the kwargs to instantiate the resulting `Column` expression with.
6987
6988    Returns:
6989        A column expression.
6990    """
6991    if isinstance(sql_path, Column):
6992        return maybe_copy(sql_path, copy=copy)
6993
6994    try:
6995        col = maybe_parse(sql_path, into=Column, dialect=dialect)
6996    except ParseError:
6997        return column(*reversed(sql_path.split(".")), quoted=quoted, **kwargs)
6998
6999    for k, v in kwargs.items():
7000        col.set(k, v)
7001
7002    if quoted:
7003        for i in col.find_all(Identifier):
7004            i.set("quoted", True)
7005
7006    return col
7007
7008
7009def alias_(
7010    expression: ExpOrStr,
7011    alias: t.Optional[str | Identifier],
7012    table: bool | t.Sequence[str | Identifier] = False,
7013    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
7014    dialect: DialectType = None,
7015    copy: bool = True,
7016    **opts,
7017):
7018    """Create an Alias expression.
7019
7020    Example:
7021        >>> alias_('foo', 'bar').sql()
7022        'foo AS bar'
7023
7024        >>> alias_('(select 1, 2)', 'bar', table=['a', 'b']).sql()
7025        '(SELECT 1, 2) AS bar(a, b)'
7026
7027    Args:
7028        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
7029            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
7030        alias: the alias name to use. If the name has
7031            special characters it is quoted.
7032        table: Whether to create a table alias, can also be a list of columns.
7033        quoted: whether to quote the alias
7034        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
7035        copy: Whether to copy the expression.
7036        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
7037
7038    Returns:
7039        Alias: the aliased expression
7040    """
7041    exp = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
7042    alias = to_identifier(alias, quoted=quoted)
7043
7044    if table:
7045        table_alias = TableAlias(this=alias)
7046        exp.set("alias", table_alias)
7047
7048        if not isinstance(table, bool):
7049            for column in table:
7050                table_alias.append("columns", to_identifier(column, quoted=quoted))
7051
7052        return exp
7053
7054    # We don't set the "alias" arg for Window expressions, because that would add an IDENTIFIER node in
7055    # the AST, representing a "named_window" [1] construct (eg. bigquery). What we want is an ALIAS node
7056    # for the complete Window expression.
7057    #
7058    # [1]: https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/window-function-calls
7059
7060    if "alias" in exp.arg_types and not isinstance(exp, Window):
7061        exp.set("alias", alias)
7062        return exp
7063    return Alias(this=exp, alias=alias)
7064
7065
7066def subquery(
7067    expression: ExpOrStr,
7068    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
7069    dialect: DialectType = None,
7070    **opts,
7071) -> Select:
7072    """
7073    Build a subquery expression that's selected from.
7074
7075    Example:
7076        >>> subquery('select x from tbl', 'bar').select('x').sql()
7077        'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl) AS bar'
7078
7079    Args:
7080        expression: the SQL code strings to parse.
7081            If an Expression instance is passed, this is used as-is.
7082        alias: the alias name to use.
7083        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
7084        **opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
7085
7086    Returns:
7087        A new Select instance with the subquery expression included.
7088    """
7089
7090    expression = maybe_parse(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts).subquery(alias, **opts)
7091    return Select().from_(expression, dialect=dialect, **opts)
7092
7093
7094@t.overload
7095def column(
7096    col: str | Identifier,
7097    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
7098    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
7099    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
7100    *,
7101    fields: t.Collection[t.Union[str, Identifier]],
7102    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
7103    copy: bool = True,
7104) -> Dot:
7105    pass
7106
7107
7108@t.overload
7109def column(
7110    col: str | Identifier,
7111    table: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
7112    db: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
7113    catalog: t.Optional[str | Identifier] = None,
7114    *,
7115    fields: Lit[None] = None,
7116    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
7117    copy: bool = True,
7118) -> Column:
7119    pass
7120
7121
7122def column(
7123    col,
7124    table=None,
7125    db=None,
7126    catalog=None,
7127    *,
7128    fields=None,
7129    quoted=None,
7130    copy=True,
7131):
7132    """
7133    Build a Column.
7134
7135    Args:
7136        col: Column name.
7137        table: Table name.
7138        db: Database name.
7139        catalog: Catalog name.
7140        fields: Additional fields using dots.
7141        quoted: Whether to force quotes on the column's identifiers.
7142        copy: Whether to copy identifiers if passed in.
7143
7144    Returns:
7145        The new Column instance.
7146    """
7147    this = Column(
7148        this=to_identifier(col, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
7149        table=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
7150        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
7151        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted, copy=copy),
7152    )
7153
7154    if fields:
7155        this = Dot.build(
7156            (this, *(to_identifier(field, quoted=quoted, copy=copy) for field in fields))
7157        )
7158    return this
7159
7160
7161def cast(expression: ExpOrStr, to: DATA_TYPE, copy: bool = True, **opts) -> Cast:
7162    """Cast an expression to a data type.
7163
7164    Example:
7165        >>> cast('x + 1', 'int').sql()
7166        'CAST(x + 1 AS INT)'
7167
7168    Args:
7169        expression: The expression to cast.
7170        to: The datatype to cast to.
7171        copy: Whether to copy the supplied expressions.
7172
7173    Returns:
7174        The new Cast instance.
7175    """
7176    expr = maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, **opts)
7177    data_type = DataType.build(to, copy=copy, **opts)
7178
7179    if expr.is_type(data_type):
7180        return expr
7181
7182    expr = Cast(this=expr, to=data_type)
7183    expr.type = data_type
7184
7185    return expr
7186
7187
7188def table_(
7189    table: Identifier | str,
7190    db: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
7191    catalog: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
7192    quoted: t.Optional[bool] = None,
7193    alias: t.Optional[Identifier | str] = None,
7194) -> Table:
7195    """Build a Table.
7196
7197    Args:
7198        table: Table name.
7199        db: Database name.
7200        catalog: Catalog name.
7201        quote: Whether to force quotes on the table's identifiers.
7202        alias: Table's alias.
7203
7204    Returns:
7205        The new Table instance.
7206    """
7207    return Table(
7208        this=to_identifier(table, quoted=quoted) if table else None,
7209        db=to_identifier(db, quoted=quoted) if db else None,
7210        catalog=to_identifier(catalog, quoted=quoted) if catalog else None,
7211        alias=TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None,
7212    )
7213
7214
7215def values(
7216    values: t.Iterable[t.Tuple[t.Any, ...]],
7217    alias: t.Optional[str] = None,
7218    columns: t.Optional[t.Iterable[str] | t.Dict[str, DataType]] = None,
7219) -> Values:
7220    """Build VALUES statement.
7221
7222    Example:
7223        >>> values([(1, '2')]).sql()
7224        "VALUES (1, '2')"
7225
7226    Args:
7227        values: values statements that will be converted to SQL
7228        alias: optional alias
7229        columns: Optional list of ordered column names or ordered dictionary of column names to types.
7230         If either are provided then an alias is also required.
7231
7232    Returns:
7233        Values: the Values expression object
7234    """
7235    if columns and not alias:
7236        raise ValueError("Alias is required when providing columns")
7237
7238    return Values(
7239        expressions=[convert(tup) for tup in values],
7240        alias=(
7241            TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias), columns=[to_identifier(x) for x in columns])
7242            if columns
7243            else (TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None)
7244        ),
7245    )
7246
7247
7248def var(name: t.Optional[ExpOrStr]) -> Var:
7249    """Build a SQL variable.
7250
7251    Example:
7252        >>> repr(var('x'))
7253        'Var(this=x)'
7254
7255        >>> repr(var(column('x', table='y')))
7256        'Var(this=x)'
7257
7258    Args:
7259        name: The name of the var or an expression who's name will become the var.
7260
7261    Returns:
7262        The new variable node.
7263    """
7264    if not name:
7265        raise ValueError("Cannot convert empty name into var.")
7266
7267    if isinstance(name, Expression):
7268        name = name.name
7269    return Var(this=name)
7270
7271
7272def rename_table(
7273    old_name: str | Table,
7274    new_name: str | Table,
7275    dialect: DialectType = None,
7276) -> AlterTable:
7277    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME... expression
7278
7279    Args:
7280        old_name: The old name of the table
7281        new_name: The new name of the table
7282        dialect: The dialect to parse the table.
7283
7284    Returns:
7285        Alter table expression
7286    """
7287    old_table = to_table(old_name, dialect=dialect)
7288    new_table = to_table(new_name, dialect=dialect)
7289    return AlterTable(
7290        this=old_table,
7291        actions=[
7292            RenameTable(this=new_table),
7293        ],
7294    )
7295
7296
7297def rename_column(
7298    table_name: str | Table,
7299    old_column_name: str | Column,
7300    new_column_name: str | Column,
7301    exists: t.Optional[bool] = None,
7302    dialect: DialectType = None,
7303) -> AlterTable:
7304    """Build ALTER TABLE... RENAME COLUMN... expression
7305
7306    Args:
7307        table_name: Name of the table
7308        old_column: The old name of the column
7309        new_column: The new name of the column
7310        exists: Whether to add the `IF EXISTS` clause
7311        dialect: The dialect to parse the table/column.
7312
7313    Returns:
7314        Alter table expression
7315    """
7316    table = to_table(table_name, dialect=dialect)
7317    old_column = to_column(old_column_name, dialect=dialect)
7318    new_column = to_column(new_column_name, dialect=dialect)
7319    return AlterTable(
7320        this=table,
7321        actions=[
7322            RenameColumn(this=old_column, to=new_column, exists=exists),
7323        ],
7324    )
7325
7326
7327def convert(value: t.Any, copy: bool = False) -> Expression:
7328    """Convert a python value into an expression object.
7329
7330    Raises an error if a conversion is not possible.
7331
7332    Args:
7333        value: A python object.
7334        copy: Whether to copy `value` (only applies to Expressions and collections).
7335
7336    Returns:
7337        The equivalent expression object.
7338    """
7339    if isinstance(value, Expression):
7340        return maybe_copy(value, copy)
7341    if isinstance(value, str):
7342        return Literal.string(value)
7343    if isinstance(value, bool):
7344        return Boolean(this=value)
7345    if value is None or (isinstance(value, float) and math.isnan(value)):
7346        return null()
7347    if isinstance(value, numbers.Number):
7348        return Literal.number(value)
7349    if isinstance(value, bytes):
7350        return HexString(this=value.hex())
7351    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
7352        datetime_literal = Literal.string(
7353            (value if value.tzinfo else value.replace(tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)).isoformat(
7354                sep=" "
7355            )
7356        )
7357        return TimeStrToTime(this=datetime_literal)
7358    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
7359        date_literal = Literal.string(value.strftime("%Y-%m-%d"))
7360        return DateStrToDate(this=date_literal)
7361    if isinstance(value, tuple):
7362        if hasattr(value, "_fields"):
7363            return Struct(
7364                expressions=[
7365                    PropertyEQ(
7366                        this=to_identifier(k), expression=convert(getattr(value, k), copy=copy)
7367                    )
7368                    for k in value._fields
7369                ]
7370            )
7371        return Tuple(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
7372    if isinstance(value, list):
7373        return Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value])
7374    if isinstance(value, dict):
7375        return Map(
7376            keys=Array(expressions=[convert(k, copy=copy) for k in value]),
7377            values=Array(expressions=[convert(v, copy=copy) for v in value.values()]),
7378        )
7379    if hasattr(value, "__dict__"):
7380        return Struct(
7381            expressions=[
7382                PropertyEQ(this=to_identifier(k), expression=convert(v, copy=copy))
7383                for k, v in value.__dict__.items()
7384            ]
7385        )
7386    raise ValueError(f"Cannot convert {value}")
7387
7388
7389def replace_children(expression: Expression, fun: t.Callable, *args, **kwargs) -> None:
7390    """
7391    Replace children of an expression with the result of a lambda fun(child) -> exp.
7392    """
7393    for k, v in tuple(expression.args.items()):
7394        is_list_arg = type(v) is list
7395
7396        child_nodes = v if is_list_arg else [v]
7397        new_child_nodes = []
7398
7399        for cn in child_nodes:
7400            if isinstance(cn, Expression):
7401                for child_node in ensure_collection(fun(cn, *args, **kwargs)):
7402                    new_child_nodes.append(child_node)
7403            else:
7404                new_child_nodes.append(cn)
7405
7406        expression.set(k, new_child_nodes if is_list_arg else seq_get(new_child_nodes, 0))
7407
7408
7409def replace_tree(
7410    expression: Expression,
7411    fun: t.Callable,
7412    prune: t.Optional[t.Callable[[Expression], bool]] = None,
7413) -> Expression:
7414    """
7415    Replace an entire tree with the result of function calls on each node.
7416
7417    This will be traversed in reverse dfs, so leaves first.
7418    If new nodes are created as a result of function calls, they will also be traversed.
7419    """
7420    stack = list(expression.dfs(prune=prune))
7421
7422    while stack:
7423        node = stack.pop()
7424        new_node = fun(node)
7425
7426        if new_node is not node:
7427            node.replace(new_node)
7428
7429            if isinstance(new_node, Expression):
7430                stack.append(new_node)
7431
7432    return new_node
7433
7434
7435def column_table_names(expression: Expression, exclude: str = "") -> t.Set[str]:
7436    """
7437    Return all table names referenced through columns in an expression.
7438
7439    Example:
7440        >>> import sqlglot
7441        >>> sorted(column_table_names(sqlglot.parse_one("a.b AND c.d AND c.e")))
7442        ['a', 'c']
7443
7444    Args:
7445        expression: expression to find table names.
7446        exclude: a table name to exclude
7447
7448    Returns:
7449        A list of unique names.
7450    """
7451    return {
7452        table
7453        for table in (column.table for column in expression.find_all(Column))
7454        if table and table != exclude
7455    }
7456
7457
7458def table_name(table: Table | str, dialect: DialectType = None, identify: bool = False) -> str:
7459    """Get the full name of a table as a string.
7460
7461    Args:
7462        table: Table expression node or string.
7463        dialect: The dialect to generate the table name for.
7464        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
7465            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
7466            True: Always quote.
7467
7468    Examples:
7469        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
7470        >>> table_name(parse_one("select * from a.b.c").find(exp.Table))
7471        'a.b.c'
7472
7473    Returns:
7474        The table name.
7475    """
7476
7477    table = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect)
7478
7479    if not table:
7480        raise ValueError(f"Cannot parse {table}")
7481
7482    return ".".join(
7483        (
7484            part.sql(dialect=dialect, identify=True, copy=False)
7485            if identify or not SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(part.name)
7486            else part.name
7487        )
7488        for part in table.parts
7489    )
7490
7491
7492def normalize_table_name(table: str | Table, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> str:
7493    """Returns a case normalized table name without quotes.
7494
7495    Args:
7496        table: the table to normalize
7497        dialect: the dialect to use for normalization rules
7498        copy: whether to copy the expression.
7499
7500    Examples:
7501        >>> normalize_table_name("`A-B`.c", dialect="bigquery")
7502        'A-B.c'
7503    """
7504    from sqlglot.optimizer.normalize_identifiers import normalize_identifiers
7505
7506    return ".".join(
7507        p.name
7508        for p in normalize_identifiers(
7509            to_table(table, dialect=dialect, copy=copy), dialect=dialect
7510        ).parts
7511    )
7512
7513
7514def replace_tables(
7515    expression: E, mapping: t.Dict[str, str], dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True
7516) -> E:
7517    """Replace all tables in expression according to the mapping.
7518
7519    Args:
7520        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
7521        mapping: mapping of table names.
7522        dialect: the dialect of the mapping table
7523        copy: whether to copy the expression.
7524
7525    Examples:
7526        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
7527        >>> replace_tables(parse_one("select * from a.b"), {"a.b": "c"}).sql()
7528        'SELECT * FROM c /* a.b */'
7529
7530    Returns:
7531        The mapped expression.
7532    """
7533
7534    mapping = {normalize_table_name(k, dialect=dialect): v for k, v in mapping.items()}
7535
7536    def _replace_tables(node: Expression) -> Expression:
7537        if isinstance(node, Table):
7538            original = normalize_table_name(node, dialect=dialect)
7539            new_name = mapping.get(original)
7540
7541            if new_name:
7542                table = to_table(
7543                    new_name,
7544                    **{k: v for k, v in node.args.items() if k not in TABLE_PARTS},
7545                    dialect=dialect,
7546                )
7547                table.add_comments([original])
7548                return table
7549        return node
7550
7551    return expression.transform(_replace_tables, copy=copy)  # type: ignore
7552
7553
7554def replace_placeholders(expression: Expression, *args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
7555    """Replace placeholders in an expression.
7556
7557    Args:
7558        expression: expression node to be transformed and replaced.
7559        args: positional names that will substitute unnamed placeholders in the given order.
7560        kwargs: keyword arguments that will substitute named placeholders.
7561
7562    Examples:
7563        >>> from sqlglot import exp, parse_one
7564        >>> replace_placeholders(
7565        ...     parse_one("select * from :tbl where ? = ?"),
7566        ...     exp.to_identifier("str_col"), "b", tbl=exp.to_identifier("foo")
7567        ... ).sql()
7568        "SELECT * FROM foo WHERE str_col = 'b'"
7569
7570    Returns:
7571        The mapped expression.
7572    """
7573
7574    def _replace_placeholders(node: Expression, args, **kwargs) -> Expression:
7575        if isinstance(node, Placeholder):
7576            if node.this:
7577                new_name = kwargs.get(node.this)
7578                if new_name is not None:
7579                    return convert(new_name)
7580            else:
7581                try:
7582                    return convert(next(args))
7583                except StopIteration:
7584                    pass
7585        return node
7586
7587    return expression.transform(_replace_placeholders, iter(args), **kwargs)
7588
7589
7590def expand(
7591    expression: Expression,
7592    sources: t.Dict[str, Query],
7593    dialect: DialectType = None,
7594    copy: bool = True,
7595) -> Expression:
7596    """Transforms an expression by expanding all referenced sources into subqueries.
7597
7598    Examples:
7599        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
7600        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y")}).sql()
7601        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM y) AS z /* source: x */'
7602
7603        >>> expand(parse_one("select * from x AS z"), {"x": parse_one("select * from y"), "y": parse_one("select * from z")}).sql()
7604        'SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM z) AS y /* source: y */) AS z /* source: x */'
7605
7606    Args:
7607        expression: The expression to expand.
7608        sources: A dictionary of name to Queries.
7609        dialect: The dialect of the sources dict.
7610        copy: Whether to copy the expression during transformation. Defaults to True.
7611
7612    Returns:
7613        The transformed expression.
7614    """
7615    sources = {normalize_table_name(k, dialect=dialect): v for k, v in sources.items()}
7616
7617    def _expand(node: Expression):
7618        if isinstance(node, Table):
7619            name = normalize_table_name(node, dialect=dialect)
7620            source = sources.get(name)
7621            if source:
7622                subquery = source.subquery(node.alias or name)
7623                subquery.comments = [f"source: {name}"]
7624                return subquery.transform(_expand, copy=False)
7625        return node
7626
7627    return expression.transform(_expand, copy=copy)
7628
7629
7630def func(name: str, *args, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs) -> Func:
7631    """
7632    Returns a Func expression.
7633
7634    Examples:
7635        >>> func("abs", 5).sql()
7636        'ABS(5)'
7637
7638        >>> func("cast", this=5, to=DataType.build("DOUBLE")).sql()
7639        'CAST(5 AS DOUBLE)'
7640
7641    Args:
7642        name: the name of the function to build.
7643        args: the args used to instantiate the function of interest.
7644        copy: whether to copy the argument expressions.
7645        dialect: the source dialect.
7646        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7647
7648    Note:
7649        The arguments `args` and `kwargs` are mutually exclusive.
7650
7651    Returns:
7652        An instance of the function of interest, or an anonymous function, if `name` doesn't
7653        correspond to an existing `sqlglot.expressions.Func` class.
7654    """
7655    if args and kwargs:
7656        raise ValueError("Can't use both args and kwargs to instantiate a function.")
7657
7658    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import Dialect
7659
7660    dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
7661
7662    converted: t.List[Expression] = [maybe_parse(arg, dialect=dialect, copy=copy) for arg in args]
7663    kwargs = {key: maybe_parse(value, dialect=dialect, copy=copy) for key, value in kwargs.items()}
7664
7665    constructor = dialect.parser_class.FUNCTIONS.get(name.upper())
7666    if constructor:
7667        if converted:
7668            if "dialect" in constructor.__code__.co_varnames:
7669                function = constructor(converted, dialect=dialect)
7670            else:
7671                function = constructor(converted)
7672        elif constructor.__name__ == "from_arg_list":
7673            function = constructor.__self__(**kwargs)  # type: ignore
7674        else:
7675            constructor = FUNCTION_BY_NAME.get(name.upper())
7676            if constructor:
7677                function = constructor(**kwargs)
7678            else:
7679                raise ValueError(
7680                    f"Unable to convert '{name}' into a Func. Either manually construct "
7681                    "the Func expression of interest or parse the function call."
7682                )
7683    else:
7684        kwargs = kwargs or {"expressions": converted}
7685        function = Anonymous(this=name, **kwargs)
7686
7687    for error_message in function.error_messages(converted):
7688        raise ValueError(error_message)
7689
7690    return function
7691
7692
7693def case(
7694    expression: t.Optional[ExpOrStr] = None,
7695    **opts,
7696) -> Case:
7697    """
7698    Initialize a CASE statement.
7699
7700    Example:
7701        case().when("a = 1", "foo").else_("bar")
7702
7703    Args:
7704        expression: Optionally, the input expression (not all dialects support this)
7705        **opts: Extra keyword arguments for parsing `expression`
7706    """
7707    if expression is not None:
7708        this = maybe_parse(expression, **opts)
7709    else:
7710        this = None
7711    return Case(this=this, ifs=[])
7712
7713
7714def array(
7715    *expressions: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
7716) -> Array:
7717    """
7718    Returns an array.
7719
7720    Examples:
7721        >>> array(1, 'x').sql()
7722        'ARRAY(1, x)'
7723
7724    Args:
7725        expressions: the expressions to add to the array.
7726        copy: whether to copy the argument expressions.
7727        dialect: the source dialect.
7728        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7729
7730    Returns:
7731        An array expression.
7732    """
7733    return Array(
7734        expressions=[
7735            maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, dialect=dialect, **kwargs)
7736            for expression in expressions
7737        ]
7738    )
7739
7740
7741def tuple_(
7742    *expressions: ExpOrStr, copy: bool = True, dialect: DialectType = None, **kwargs
7743) -> Tuple:
7744    """
7745    Returns an tuple.
7746
7747    Examples:
7748        >>> tuple_(1, 'x').sql()
7749        '(1, x)'
7750
7751    Args:
7752        expressions: the expressions to add to the tuple.
7753        copy: whether to copy the argument expressions.
7754        dialect: the source dialect.
7755        kwargs: the kwargs used to instantiate the function of interest.
7756
7757    Returns:
7758        A tuple expression.
7759    """
7760    return Tuple(
7761        expressions=[
7762            maybe_parse(expression, copy=copy, dialect=dialect, **kwargs)
7763            for expression in expressions
7764        ]
7765    )
7766
7767
7768def true() -> Boolean:
7769    """
7770    Returns a true Boolean expression.
7771    """
7772    return Boolean(this=True)
7773
7774
7775def false() -> Boolean:
7776    """
7777    Returns a false Boolean expression.
7778    """
7779    return Boolean(this=False)
7780
7781
7782def null() -> Null:
7783    """
7784    Returns a Null expression.
7785    """
7786    return Null()
7787
7788
7789NONNULL_CONSTANTS = (
7790    Literal,
7791    Boolean,
7792)
7793
7794CONSTANTS = (
7795    Literal,
7796    Boolean,
7797    Null,
7798)